The World as Will and Idea, Vol. II — Arthur Schopenhauer, trans. Haldane & Kemp

particular affirmative proposition. The negative propositions take the opposite course. Accordingly in every judgment the subject, the predicate, and the copula, the latter affirmative or negative, must be to be found ; even although each of these is not denoted by a word of its own, as is however generally the case.

The predicate and the copula are often denoted by one word, as " Caius ages;" sometimes one word denotes all three, as eoncurritur, i.e., " the armies engage.

From this it is evident that the forms of thought are not to be sought for precisely and directly in words, nor even in the parts of speech, for even in the same language the same judgment may be expressed in different words, and indeed in different parts of speech, yet the thought remains the same, and consequently also its form ; for the thought could not be the same if the form of thought itself were different.

But with the same thought and the same form 0: thought the form of words may very well be different, fcr it is merely the outward clothing of the thought, which, on the other hand, is inseparable from its form. Thus grammar only explains the clothing of the forms of thought.

The parts of speech can therefore be deduced from the original forms of thought themselves which are independent of all language; their work is to express these forms of thought in all their modifications. They are the instrument and the clothing of the forms of thought, and must be accurately adapted to the structure of the latter, so that it may be recognised in them.

(3.) These real, unalterable, original forms of thought are certainly those of Kant's logical table of judgments ; only that in this table are to be found blind windows for the sake of symmetry and the table of the categories ; these must ail be omitted, and also a false arrangement. Thus : —

(a.) Quality : affirmation and negation, i.e., combination and separation of concepts: two forms. It depends on the copula.

(b.) Quantity: the subject-concept is taken either inp. 88 whole or in part: totality or multiplicity. To the first belong also individual subjects: Socrates means "all Socrateses." Thus two forms. It depends on the subject.

(c.) Modality: has really three forms. It determines the quality as necessary, actual, or contingent It consequently depends also on the copula.

These three forms of thought spring from the laws of thought of contradiction and identity. But from the principle of sufficient reason and the law of excluded middle springs —

(d.) Relation. It only appears if we judge concerning / completed judgments, and can only consist in this, that/ it either asserts the dependence of one judgment uponl another (also in the plurality of both), and therefor* combines them in the hypothetical proposition; or else asserts that judgments exclude each other, and therefore separates them in the disjunctive proposition. It depend* on the copula, which here separates or combines the completed judgments.

The parts of speech and grammatical forms are ways of expressing the three constituent parts of the judgment, the subject, the predicate, and the copula, and also of the possible relations of these ; thus of the forms of thought just enumerated, and the fuller determinations and modifications of these. Substantive, adjective, and verb are therefore essential fundamental constituent elements of language in general ; therefore they must be found in all languages. Yet it is possible to conceive a language in ... which adjective and verb would always be fused together, as is sometimes the case in all languages. Provisionally it may be said, for the expression of the subject are intended the substantive, the article, and the pronoun j for the expression of the predicate, the adjective, the ad» verb, and the preposition ; for the expression of the copul*, the verb, which, however, with the exception of the verb to be, also contains the predicate. It is the task of the philosophy of grammar to teach the precise mechanism olp. 89 the expression of the forms of thought, as it is the task of logic to teach the operations with the forms of thought themselves.