The Nicomachean Ethics — trans. F. H. Peters (1881)

But in all cases we must be especially on our guard 6 against pleasant things, and against pleasure ; for we can scarce judge her impartially. And so, in our behaviour towards her, we should imitate the behaviour of the old counsellors towards Helen,* and in all cases repeat their saying : if we dismiss her we shall be less likely to go wrong.

This then, in outline, is the course by which we 7 shall best be able to hit the mean.

But it is a hard task, we must admit, especially in a particular case. It is not easy to determine, for instance, how and with whom one ought to be angry, and upon what grounds, and for how long ; for public opinion sometimes praises those who fall short, and calls them gentle, and sometimes applies the term manly to those who show a harsh temper.

In fact, a slight error, whether on the side of excess 8 or deficiency, is not blamed, but only a considerable error; for then there can be no mistake. But it is hardly possible to determine by reasoning how far or to what extent a man must err in order to incur * Horn., H., iii. 154-160.

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1 )lame ; and indeed matters that fall within the scope of perception never can be so determined. Such matters lie within the region of particulars, and can only be determined by perception.

So much then is plain, that the middle character is in all cases to be praised, but that we ought to incline sometimes towards excess, sometimes towards definency ; for in this way we shall most easily hit the mean and attain to right doinor.

BOOK III.

CHAPTERS 1-5. THE WILL.

An act is !• ViRTUE, as We have seen, has to do with feel- l wu^t^V ings and actions. Now, praise * or blame is given com^^, only to what is voluntary ; that which is involimtary 7h^lgh receives pardon, and sometimes even pity. la)Z^nsnot It secms, therefore, that a clear distinction between byck>er, the voluntary and the involuntary is necessary for thrZ^^r those who are investigating the nature of virtue, and ofthecir- will also help legislators in assigning rewards and voluntary pUUlshmentS. then means originated That IS generally held to be involuntary which is 2 with know- CI ^ ^ udgeofcir- donc Under compulsion or through ignorance.

cumstances. ^ o o

"Done under compulsion" means that the cause 3 is external, the agent or patient contributing nothing towards it ; as, for instance, if he were carried somewhere by a whirlwind or by men whom he could not resist.

But there is some question about acts done in order 4 to avoid a greater evil, or to obtain some noble end ; e.g. if a tyrant were to order you to do something dis-

* It mtist be remembered that " virtue " is synonymous with " praiseworthy habit ; " I. 13, 20 ; II. 9, 9.

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eful, having your parents or children in his power, ho were to live if you did it, but to die if you did <t — it is a matter of dispute whether such acts are Lvoluntary or voluntary. Throwinor a car^o overboard in a storm is a somewhat analogous case. No one voluntarily throws away his property if nothing is to come of it,* but any nsible person would do so to save the life of himself and the crew. 6 Acts of this kind, then, are of a mixed nature, but they more nearly resemble voluntary acts. For they are desired or chosen at the time when they are done, and the end or motive of an act is that which is in \-iew at the time. In applying the terms voluntary \nd involuntary, therefore, we must consider the rate of the agent's mind at the time. Now, he wills the act at the time; for the cause which sets the limbs going lies in the agent in such cases, and where the cause lies in the agent, it rests with him to do or not to do.

Such acts, then, are voluntary, though in themselves [or apart from these qualifying circumstances] we may allow them to be involuntary ; for no one would choose anything of this kind on its own account. ij And, in fact, for actions of this sort men are P sometimes praised,t e.g. when they endure something disgraceful or painftd in order to secure some great and noble result : but in the contrary case they are

* aTr\us, " without qualification : " no one chooses loss of property -imply, bnt loss of property with saving of life is what all sensible people would choose.