The Nicomachean Ethics — trans. F. H. Peters (1881)
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tioD^pg^ none of these things for his vx^rk ; nay, it may even be said that they are a hindrance to speculation : but as a man living with other men, he chooses to act virtuously; and so he will need things of this sort to enable him to behave like a man.
That perfect happiness is some kind of speculative activity may also be sho^-n in the following way : — 3 It is always supposed that the gods are, of all beijugs, the most blessed and happy ; but what kind of actions shall we ascribe to them ? Acts of justice ? Surely it is ridiculous to conceive the gods engaged in trade and restoring deposits, and so on. Or acts of courage ? Can we conceive them enduring fearful things and facing danger because it is noble to do so ? Or acts of liberality ? But to whom are they to give ? and is it not absurd to suppose that they have money or anything of that kind ? And what could acts of temperance mean with them? Surel}' it would be an insult to praise them for having no evil desires. In short, if we were to go through the whole list, we should find that all action is petty and unworthy of the gods.
And yet it is universally supposed that they live, and therefore that they exert their powere ; for we cannot suppose that they lie asleep like Endymion.
Xow, if a being lives, and action cannot be ascribed to him, still less production, what remains but contemplation ? It follows, then, that the divine
: e, which surpasses all others in blessedness, consists i contemplation.
Of all modes of human activity, therefore, that
344 NIOOMACHEAN ETHICS OF ARISTOTLE. [Bk. X.
which is most akin to this will be capable of the greatest happiness.
And this is further confirmed by the fact that the other animals do not participate in happiness, being quite incapable of this kind of activity. For the life of the gods is CDtirely blessed, and the life of man is blessed just so far as he attains to some likeness of this kind of activity ; but none of the other animals are happy, since they are quite incapable of contemplation.
Happiness, then, extends just so far as contemplation, and the more contemplation the more happiness is there in a life, — not accidentally, but as a necessary accompaniment of the contemplation ; for contemplation is precious in itself.
Our conclusion, then, is that happiness is a kind of speculation or contemplation.
But as we are men we shall need external good fortune also : for our nature does not itself provide all that is necessary for contemplation ; the body must be in health, and supplied with food, and otherwise cared for. We must not, however, suppose that because it is impossible to be happy without external good things, therefore a man who is to be happy will want many things or much. It is not the superabundance of good things that makes a man independent, or enables him to act ; and a man may do noble deeds, though he be not ruler of land and sea. A moderate equipment may give you opportunity for virtuous action.
It is easy to find illustrations of this. Private persons seem to do what is right not less, but rather8, 8-13.] CONCLUSION. 345 more, than princes. And so much as gives this opportunity is enough ; for that man's life vriW be happy who has virtue and exercises it.
Solon too, I think, gave a good description of the happy man when he said that, in his opinion, he was a man who was moderately supplied with the gifts of fortune, but had done the noblest deeds, and lived temperately ; for a man who has but modest means may do his duty.
Anaxagoras also seems to have held that the happy man was neither a rich man nor a prince ; for he said that he should not be surprised if the happy man were one whom the masses could hardly believe to be so ; for they judge by the outside, which is all they can appreciate.
The opinions of the wise, then, seem to agree with our theory. But though thase opinions carry some weight, the test of truth in matters of practice is to be found in the facts of life ; for it is in them that the supreme authority resides. The theories we have advanced, therefore, should be tested by comparison with the facts of life; and if they agree with the facts, they should be accepted, but if they disagree they should be accounted mere theories.