From the archive

The Laws of Manu — SBE Vol. 25 (trans. Georg Bühler, 1886)

English·1879–1910·trans. Georg Bühler·567 passages

The text · part 14 of 27

71. Let him make every effort to secure a hillfort, for amongst all those (fortresses mentioned) a hill-fort is distinguished by many superior qualities.

72. The first three of those (various kinds of fortresses) are inhabited by wild beasts, animals living in holes and aquatic animals, the last three by monkeys, men, and gods respectively.

73. As enemies do not hurt these (beings, when they are) sheltered by (their) fortresses, even so foes (can)not injure a king who has taken refuge in his fort.

74. One bowman, placed on a rampart, is a match in battle for one hundred (foes), one hundred for ten

69. Vi. III, 4-5; YAg%. I, 320. The full definition of gangalad, ‘which is open and has a dry climate,’ is, according to a verse quoted by Gov., Ragh., and Kull.,‘That country is called gangala, which has little water and grass, where strong breezes prevail, the heat is great, where grain and the like are abundant.’ Andvila, ‘not subject to epidemic diseases (or similar troubles),’ (Kull. and Ragh.), means according to Medh. ‘where the people are not quarrelsome ;’ according to N4r. and Nand. ‘free from defilement such as a mixture of the castes.’

70. Vi. III, 6.

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thousand ; hence it is prescribed (in the S4stras that a king shall possess) a fortress.

75. Let that (fort) be well supplied with weapons, money, grain and beasts of burden, with Brahmamzas, with artisans, with engines, with fodder, and with water.

76. Let him cause to be built for himself, in the centre of it, a spacious palace, (well) protected, habitable in every season, resplendent (with whitewash), supplied with water and trees,

77. Inhabiting that, let him wed a consort of equal caste (varza), who possesses auspicious marks (on her body), and is born in a great family, who is charming and possesses beauty and excellent qualities.

78. Let him appoint a domestic priest (purohita) and choose officiating priests (vztvig); they shall perform his domestic rites and the (sacrifices) for which three fires are required.

79. A king shall offer various (Srauta) sacrifices at which liberal fees (are distributed), and in order

45. Yantraif, ‘ with engines,’ i.e. ‘with catapults and so forth’
(kshepy4dibhiZ, N4r.), or ‘made of iron and so forth’ (Ragh.).

76. Ap. Il, 25, 2-3. Sarvartukam, ‘habitable in every season’
(Nar., Nand.), means according to Medh., Gov., Kull, and Ragh.
‘supplied with the produce of every season.’

78. Gaut. XI, 12-18; Vas. XIX, 3-6; Baudh. I, 18, 7-8; Vi. Ill, 70; Yagi. I, 312-313. Medh., Gov., Ragh., and K. read, as the sense requires, rztvigaA, ‘officiating priests,’ while Kull. alone gives the singular.

79. Ap. II, 26, 1; Vi. III, 81, 84; Yagw. I, 314. ‘ Enjoyments,’ i.e. ‘garlands, perfumes, unguents, and so forth’ (Medh.), or ‘ houses, couches, and so forth’ (Gov., Ragh.), or ‘ gold, clothes, &c.’ (Kull.), or ‘wives, houses, clothes, and so forth’ (N&r.), or ‘cows and buffalos’ (Nand.).

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III, 81, 84; Yagw. I, 314. ‘ Enjoyments,’ i.e. ‘garlands, perfumes, unguents, and so forth’ (Medh.), or ‘ houses, couches, and so forth’ (Gov., Ragh.), or ‘ gold, clothes, &c.’ (Kull.), or ‘wives, houses, clothes, and so forth’ (N&r.), or ‘cows and buffalos’ (Nand.).

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to acquire merit, he shall give to Brahmamas enjoyments and wealth.

80. Let him cause the annual revenue in his kingdom to be collected by trusty (officials), let him obey the sacred law in (his transactions with) the people, and behave like a father towards all men.

81. For the various (branches of business) let him appoint intelligent supervisors; they shall inspect all (the acts) of those men who transact his business.

82. Let him honour those Brahmazas who have returned from their teacher's house (after studying the Veda); for that (money which is given) to Brahmamas is declared to be an imperishable treasure for kings.

83. Neither thieves nor foes can take it, nor can it be lost; hence an imperishable store must be deposited by kings with Brahmamas.

84. The offering made through the mouth of a Brahmamza, which is neither spilt, nor falls (on the ground), nor ever perishes, is far more excellent than Agnihotras.

85. A gift to one who is not a Brahmanza (yields) the ordinary (reward; a gift) to one who calls himself a Brahmama, a double (reward); a gift to a well-

80. Y4e%. I, 321. ‘Let him obey the sacred law in (his transactions with his) people,’ i.e. ‘let him not take higher taxes and duties than the law permits.’

83. Yagt. I, 314.

84. Vas. XXX, 7; YV4ei.1, 315. Na vyathate, ‘nor falls (on the ground),’ (Gov., Nar.), means according to Kull. ‘ nor is dried up.’ Medh. reads fyavate, ‘falls (on the ground),’ and Nar. prefers that reading. Nand. explains na vyadhate (sic) by ‘ is not spoilt by hairs or insects falling into it.’ R&gh. takes it, like Krshnapandita in his comm. on Vas. XXX, 7, in the sense of ‘nor causes pain.’

85. Gaut.V, 20; Vi. XCIII, 1-4. Samam phalam, ‘the ordinary

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read Brahmaza, a hundred-thousandfold (reward) ;
(a gift) to one who knows the Veda and the Angas
(Vedap4raga, a reward) without end.

86. For according to the particular qualities of the recipient and according to the faith (of the giver) a small or a great reward will be obtained for a gift in the next world.

87. A king who, while he protects his people, is defied by (foes), be they equal in strength, or stronger, or weaker, must not shrink from battle, remembering the duty of Kshatriyas.

88. Not to turn back in battle, to protect the people, to honour the Brahmamas, is the best means for a king to secure happiness.

89. Those kings who, seeking to slay each other in battle, fight with the utmost exertion and do not turn back, go to heaven.

go. When he fights with his foes in battle, let him not strike with weapons concealed (in wood), nor with (such as are) barbed, poisoned, or the points of which are blazing with fire.

91. Let him not strike one who (in flight) has reward, i.e. ‘just as much as the Veda promises for the object given’ (Gov., Kull., Ragh.). Medh. takes samam in the sense of ‘middling,’ and N§&r. explains it by ‘a reward equal to the kindness shown.’ Instead of pradhite, ‘to a well-read Brahmaza,’ Medh., Gov., Nar., and K. read 4A4rye, ‘to the teacher, and Nand. srotriye, ‘to a Srotriya.’ Moreover, Gov., K., and Nand. have sahasragunam or sahasram . . danam, ‘a thousandfold reward.’

87-89. Ap. II, 26,2; Gaut. X, 16; Baudh. I, 18, 9; Vi. I,
43-453 Yagi. I, 322-323.

go. Baudh. I, 18, 10. Krish, ‘ concealed (in wood),’ (Medh., Gov., Kull., Nar., Ragh.), means according to Nand. ‘treacherous.’

gt-93. Ap. II,10,11; Gaut. X,18; Baudh. I, 18,11; Yaga. I, 325.

gt. SthalarQdsam, ‘one who (in flight) has climbed on an eminence’ (N&r.), means according to Medh., Kull., and R&gh. ‘one

VI, 97. THE KING, 231
97 Re)

climbed on an eminence, nor a eunuch, nor one who joins the palms of his hands (in supplication), nor one who (flees) with flying hair, nor one who sits down, nor one who says ‘I am thine;’

92. Nor one who sleeps, nor one who has lost his coat of mail, nor one who is naked, nor one who is disarmed, nor one who looks on without taking part in the fight, nor one who is fighting with another (foe);

93. Nor one whose weapons are broken, nor one afflicted (with sorrow), nor one who has been grievously wounded, nor one who is in fear, nor one who has turned to flight; (but in all these cases let him) remember the duty (of honourable warriors).

94. But the (Kshatriya) who is slain in battle, while he turns back in fear, takes upon himself all the sin of his master, whatever (it may be);

95- And whatever merit (a man) who is slain in flight may have gained for the next (world), all that his master takes.

96. Chariots and horses, elephants, parasols, money, grain, cattle, women, all sorts of (marketable) goods and valueless metals belong to him who takes them (singly) conquering (the possessor).

97. A text of the Veda (declares) that (the soldiers) shall present a choice portion (of the booty) to the king; what has not been taken singly, must be distributed by the king among all the soldiers.

who has alighted on the ground, i. e. ‘ while the assailant stands on his chariot.’

92. Medh. mentions a var. lect. bhagnam, ‘who is broken’ (?), for nagnam, ‘ who is naked.’

94-95. Yagn. I, 324. 96-97. Gaut. X, 20-23. «+

97. According to the commentators the Vedic text alluded to is Aitareya-brahmana III, a1.

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98. Thus has been declared the blameless, primeval law for warriors ; from this law a Kshatriya must not depart, when he strikes his foes in battle.

96-97. Gaut. X, 20-23. «+

97. According to the commentators the Vedic text alluded to is Aitareya-brahmana III, a1.

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98. Thus has been declared the blameless, primeval law for warriors ; from this law a Kshatriya must not depart, when he strikes his foes in battle.

99. Let him strive to gain what he has not yet gained; what he has gained let him carefully preserve; let him augment what he preserves, and what he has augmented let him bestow on worthy men.

100. Let him know that these are the four means for securing the aims of human (existence) ; let him, without ever tiring, properly employ them.

101. What he has not (yet) gained, let him seek (to gain) by (his) army; what he has gained, let him protect by careful attention ; what he has protected, let him augment by (various modes of) increasing it; and what he has augmented, let him liberally bestow (on worthy men).

102. Let him be ever ready to strike, his prowess constantly displayed, and his secrets constantly concealed, and let him constantly explore the weaknesses of his foe.

103. Of him who is always ready to strike, the whole world stands in awe; let him therefore make all creatures subject to himself even by the employment of force.

104. Let him ever act without guile, and on no

99. Yagh. I, 316; Vas. XVI, 6.

ror. Medh., Gov., Ragh., Nand., and K. read at the end of the verse pAtreshu nikshipet, ‘let him bestow on worthy recipients, and this may have been Kull.’s reading too.

102. Nityam udyatadandah syat, ‘let him be always ready to
strike’ (Nar., Nand.), means according to Medh., Gov., and Kull.
‘let him keep his army always ready or exercised.’

104. I read with Gov., Nar., Nand., Ragh., and K., susamvritah,
‘carefully guarding himself.’ Medh. reads atandritaJ, ‘ untired.’

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account treacherously; carefully guarding himself, let him always fathom the treachery which his foes employ.

105. His enemy must not know his weaknesses, but he must know the weaknesses of his enemy; as the tortoise (hides its limbs), even so let him secure the members (of his government against treachery), let him protect his own weak points.

106. Let him plan his undertakings (patiently meditating) like a heron; like a lion, let him put forth his strength; like a wolf, let him snatch (his prey); like a hare, let him double in retreat.

107. When he is thus engaged in conquest, let him subdue all the opponents whom he may find, by the (four) expedients, conciliation and the rest.

108. If they cannot be stopped by the three first expedients, then let him, overcoming them by force alone, gradually bring them to subjection.

109. Among the four expedients, conciliation and the rest, the learned always recommend conciliation and (the employment of) force for the prosperity of kingdoms.

110, As the weeder plucks up the weeds and preserves the corn, even so let the king protect his kingdom and destroy his opponents.

109. Among the four expedients, conciliation and the rest, the learned always recommend conciliation and (the employment of) force for the prosperity of kingdoms.

110, As the weeder plucks up the weeds and preserves the corn, even so let the king protect his kingdom and destroy his opponents.

111. That king who through folly rashly oppresses his kingdom, (will), together with his relatives, ere long be deprived of his life and of his kingdom.

112. As the lives of living creatures are destroyed by tormenting their bodies, even so the lives of kings are destroyed by their oppressing their kingdoms.

106. The position of the second and fourth clauses is interchanged according to Medh., Gov., Nand.

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113. In governing his kingdom let him always observe the (following) rules; for a king who governs his kingdom well, easily prospers.

114. Let him place a company of soldiers, commanded (by a trusty officer), in the midst of two, three, five or hundreds of villages, (to be) a protection of the kingdom.

115. Let him appoint a lord over (each) village, as well as lords of ten villages, lords of twenty, lords of a hundred, and lords of a thousand.

116. The lord of one village himself shall inform the lord of ten villages of the crimes committed in his village, and the ruler of ten (shall make his report) to the ruler of twenty.

117. But the ruler of twenty shall report all such (matters) to the lord of a hundred, and the lord of a hundred shall himself give information to the lord of a thousand.

118. Those (articles) which the villagers ought to furnish daily to the king, such as food, drink, and fuel, the lord of one village shall obtain.

114. Kull. says, ‘in the midst of two, three, or five hundred villages.’ Nar. remarks that the plural ‘hundreds’ is used in order to leave the number doubtful. It is, however, not impossible that here, as elsewhere in ancient Sanskrit, satandm means ‘a hundred.’ Medh. explains samgraha, ‘protection,’ by ‘an official,’ or ‘a royal granary.’ Gov. states correctly that the pickets mentioned are the so-called SthAnakas, the 744n4s of modern India.

115-124. Ap. II, 26, 4-5; Vi. III, 7-15; Yaga. I, 337.

116. The rule refers, as Medh., Gov., Kull., and Ragh. remark, to offences with which the persons who report them, are unable to deal. N&r. thinks that chiefly refusals to pay the revenue or disputes on such matters are meant.

118. The lord of one village is apparently the modern P4/il, the Pasfakfla or Gramak(iéa of the inscriptions, and the articles to be furnished to him the so-called ‘haks.’ The other officials correspond

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119. The ruler of ten (villages) shall enjoy one kula (as much land as suffices for one family), the ruler of twenty five kulas, the superintendent of a hundred villages (the revenues of) one village, the lord of a thousand (the revenues of) a town.

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120. The affairs of these (officials), which are connected with (their) villages and their separate business, another minister of the king shall inspect, (who must be) loyal and never remiss ;

121, And in ‘each town let him appoint one superintendent of all affairs, elevated in rank, formidable, (resembling) a planet among the stars.

122, Let that (man) always personally visit by turns all those (other officials); let him properly explore their behaviour in their districts through spies (appointed to) each.

123. For the servants of the king, who are appointed to protect (the people), generally become knaves who seize the property of others; let him protect his subjects against such (men).

424, Let the king confiscate the whole property of to the modern Naib-sb4s, Sb4s, or Mahalkaris, MAmlatd4rs, and 80 forth, and to the Vishayapatis, Rash/rapatis, Ragasthaniyas, &c. of the inscriptions.

r19. Kulam, ‘(as much land as suffices for one) family,’ is really a technical term which Medh. explains by ghavé/a, a term known ‘in some districts.’ Gov., Kull., Nar., and Ragh. state that it is the double of a ‘middling plough,’ i.e. as much as can be cultivated with twelve oxen, while Nand. interprets it by ‘the share of one cultivator.’

120. N4r. explains prithakk4ry4ni, ‘separate affairs,’ by ‘ quarrels
among each other ;’ Nand. by ‘the separate affairs of the villagers.’
Snigdhaé, ‘loyal’ (Kull., Ragh.), means according to Medh. ‘impartial.’

121. Graham,-‘a planet’ (Kull, Ragh.), or ‘the planet Mars’
(Medh.), or ‘the sun’ (Gov.), or ‘the moon’ (N&r.).

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those (officials) who, evil-minded, may take money from suitors, and banish them.

125. For women employed in the royal service and for menial servants, let him fix a daily maintenance, in proportion to their position and to their work.

126. One paza must be given (daily) as wages to the lowest, six to the highest, likewise clothing every six months and one droma of grain every month.

127. Having well considered (the rates of) purchase and (of) sale, (the length of) the road, (the expense for) food and condiments, the charges of securing the goods, let the king make the traders pay duty.

128. After (due) consideration the king shall always fix in his realm the duties and taxes in such a manner that both he himself and the man who does the work receive (their due) reward.

129. As the leech, the calf, and the bee take their food little by little, even so must the king draw from his realm moderate annual taxes.

130. A fiftieth part of (the increments on) cattle

129. As the leech, the calf, and the bee take their food little by little, even so must the king draw from his realm moderate annual taxes.

130. A fiftieth part of (the increments on) cattle

126. ‘One pana ;’ see below, VIII, 136. ‘A drona,’ i.e. ‘four adhakas’ (Medh., Kull. Ragh.), or ‘512 palas’ (Gov.); see below, VIII, 135. Gov., Kull., Nar., and Ragh. state that the highest servants shall receive six times as much grain and clothes as the lowest, and they add that the middle-class servants, of course, receive three times as much as the lowest.

127. ‘The food and condiments,’ i.e. ‘ what is consumed by the people employed by the merchants.’ According to Kull. and Nar., yoga means ‘ the net profits,’ and kshema ‘the charges for securing the goods against robbers and so forth.’ According to Medh., Gov., and Ragh., the whole compound denotes the latter charges alone.

130-132. Ap. II, 26,9; Gaut. X, 24-27; Vas. XIX, 26-27;
Baudh. I, 18, 1, 13, 15; Vi. III, 22-25, 29-30.

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and gold may be taken by the king, and the eighth, sixth, or twelfth part of the crops.

131. He may also take the sixth part of trees, meat, honey, clarified butter, perfumes, (medical) herbs, substances used for flavouring food, flowers, roots, and fruit ;

132. Of leaves, pot-herbs, grass, (objects) made of cane, skins, of earthen vessels, and all (articles) made of stone.

133. Though dying (with want), a king must not levy a tax on Srotriyas, and no Srotriya, residing in his kingdom, must perish from hunger.

134. The kingdom of that king, in whose dominions a Srotriya pines with hunger, will even, ere long, be afflicted by famine.

135. Having ascertained his learning in the Veda and (the purity of) his conduct, the king shall provide for him means of subsistence in accordance with the sacred law, and shall protect him in every way, as a father (protects) the lawful son of his body.

136. Whatever meritorious acts (such a Brdéhmaza) performs under the full protection of the king, thereby the king’s length of life, wealth, and kingdom increase.

137. Let the king make the common inhabitants of his realm who live by traffic, pay annually some trifle, which is called a tax.

132. Medh. and Kull. add ‘from the profits (made on the seventeen articles enumerated)’

133. Ap. II, 26, 10; 25,11; Gaut. X, 9; Vas. XIX, 23; Vi.
III, 26, 79.

135-136. YAgn. III, 44.

137. Prithagganam, ‘the common inhabitants,’ i. e. small dealers in vegetables, leaves, and so forth (Kull., Ragh.), or in cakes (Gov.).

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138. Mechanics and artisans, as well as S(dras who subsist by manual labour, he may cause to work (for himself) one (day) in each month.

139. Let him not cut up his own root (by levying no taxes), nor the root of other (men) by excessive greed; for by cutting up his own root (or theirs), he makes himself or them wretched.

140. Let the king, having carefully considered (each) affair, be both sharp and gentle; for a king who is both sharp and gentle is highly respected.

141. When he is tired with the inspection of the business of men, let him place on that seat (of justice) his chief minister, (who must be) acquainted with the law, wise, self-controlled, and descended from a (noble) family.

142. Having thus arranged all the affairs (of) his (government), he shall zealously and carefully protect his subjects.

143. That (monarch) whose subjects are carried off by robbers (Dasyu) from his kingdom, while they loudly call (for help), and he and his servants are (quietly) looking on, is a dead and not a living (king).

144. The highest duty of a Kshatriya is to protect his subjects, for the king who enjoys the rewards, just mentioned, is bound to (discharge that) duty.

145. Having risen in the last watch of the night, having performed (the rite of) personal purification,

138. Gaut. X, 31; Vas. XIX, 28; Vi. III, 32.

r4t. Vi. IIL, 73-743 Yagi. II, 1-3. Medh. reads sAntam, ‘of a tranquil disposition,’ for pragram, ‘ wise.’

142-144. Ap. II, 10,6; Gaut. X,7-8; Vas. XIX, 1; Baudh. I,
18,1; Vi. Ill,1; Y4g%. I, 334-335.

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having, with a collected mind, offered oblations in the fire, and having worshipped Brahmauas, he shall enter the hall of audience which must possess the marks (considered) auspicious (for a dwelling).

146. Tarrying there, he shall gratify all subjects (who come to see him by a kind reception) and afterwards dismiss them; having dismissed his subjects, he shall take counsel with his ministers.

147. Ascending the back of a hill or a terrace,
(and) retiring (there) in a lonely place, or in a solitary
forest, let him consult with them unobserved.

148. That king whose secret plans other people, (though) assembled (for the purpose), do not discover, (will) enjoy the whole earth, though he be poor in treasure.

149. At the time of consultation let him cause to be removed idiots, the dumb, the blind, and the deaf, animals, very aged men, women, barbarians, the sick, and those deficient in limbs.

150. (Such) despicable (persons), likewise animals, and particularly women betray secret council; for that reason he must be careful with respect to them.

151. At midday or at midnight, when his mental and bodily fatigues are over, let him deliberate, either with himself alone or with his (ministers), on virtue, pleasure, and wealth,

152. On (reconciling) the attainment of these

147-148. Yager. 1, 343.

147. Nidsalike, ‘solitary’ (N4r., Kull, RAagh.), means according to Medh., Gov., and Nand. ‘ free from grass and so forth.’

On (reconciling) the attainment of these

147-148. Yager. 1, 343.

147. Nidsalike, ‘solitary’ (N4r., Kull, RAagh.), means according to Medh., Gov., and Nand. ‘ free from grass and so forth.’

149. ‘Animals,’ i.e. ‘ parrots, starlings, and other talking birds’
(Kull, Gov., Ragh., Nand.), ‘for such creatures divulge secret
plans’ (Medh.).

p. 153

(aims) which are opposed to each other, on bestowing his daughters in marriage, and on keeping his sons (from harm),

153. On sending ambassadors, on the completion of undertakings (already begun), on the behaviour of (the women in) his harem, and on the doings of his spies.

154. On the whole eightfold business and the five classes (of spies), on the goodwill or enmity and the conduct of the circle (of neighbours he must) carefully (reflect).

155. On the conduct of the middlemost (prince), on the doings of him who seeks conquest, on the behaviour of the neutral (king), and (on that) of the foe (let him) sedulously (meditate).

154. ‘ The eightfold business’ consists according to Medh. either of ‘conciliation, division, employment of force, gifts,’ or ‘of agriculture, trade, building bridges and embankments, building fortresses or repairing them, catching elephants, digging mines, settling desert districts, cutting down forests,’ or ‘of collecting revenue, expenditure, dismissing bad servants, prohibiting bad conduct on the part of the castes and orders, deciding difficult points in one’s own affairs, deciding legal cases, punishing, and imposing penances.’ The second explanation, which is said to belong to Antaka (Yama), is adopted by Nand.; the third, which is taken from the Nitisdstra of Usanas, by Gov., Kull., Nar., and Ragh. ‘The five classes (of spies),’ i.e. ‘ karpasika, a pilgrim or a rogue, an ascetic who has violated his vows, a distressed agriculturist, a decayed merchant, and a fictitious devotee’ (Medh., Gov., Kull, Ragh.). Nar. and Nand. explain pa#iéavarga by ‘the collection of the five (requisites for an undertaking).’ Regarding ‘the circle,’ see the following verses.

155-159. Vi. III,-38; Yag%. I, 344.

155. ‘The middlemost prince’ is he whose territory lies between that of the king seeking conquest and that of his foe, and who, though unable to resist both, may become dangerous to them when they are at war with each other ; see Kamandaki, Nitiséra VIII, 18, which passage the commentators quote. ‘The foe’ may be of three

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156. These (four) constituents (prakvzti, form), briefly (speaking), the foundation of the circle (of neighbours); besides, eight others are enumerated (in the Institutes of Polity) and (thus) the (total) is declared to be twelve.

157. The minister, the kingdom, the fortress, the treasury, and the army are five other (constituent elements of the circle); for, these are mentioned in connexion with each (of the first twelve; thus the whole circle consists), briefly (speaking, of) seventytwo (constituent parts).

158. Let (the king) consider as hostile his immediate neighbour and the partisan of (such a) foe, as friendly the immediate neighbour of his foe, and as neutral (the king) beyond those two.

159. Let him overcome all of them by means of the (four) expedients, conciliation and the rest, (employed) either singly or conjointly, (or) by bravery and policy (alone).

160, Let him constantly think of the six measures of royal policy (guma, viz.) alliance, war, marching, halting, dividing the army, and seeking protection.

161. Having carefully considered the business (in hand), let him resort to sitting quiet or marching, kinds, ‘ natural,’ ‘ artificial’ (i.e. one who has a particular reason for his enmity), and ‘an immediate neighbour’ (see below, verse 158).

156. ‘The eight other constituents’ are according to Kamandaki VIII, 16-17, (a) in front beyond the foe’s territory, 1. a friend,
2. the foe’s friend, 3. the friend’s friend, 4. the foe’s friend’s friend;
(b) in the rear, x. he who attacks in the rear (parshnigraha), 2. he who restrains the latter (Akranda), 3, 4. the supporters of these two. All the commentators except Medh. quote Kamandaki more or less

‘correctly, Kamandaki VIII, 24 states that this doctrine, with respect to the constituent parts of the system of states which requires the attention of each king, is peculiar to the Manavas,

160-161. Vi. III, 39; Yaga. I, 345-346.

[25] Rp. 162 alliance or war, dividing his forces or seeking protection (as the case may require).

162, But the king must know that there are two kinds of alliances and of wars, (likewise two) of both marching and sitting quiet, and two (occasions for) seeking protection.

163. An alliance which yields present and future advantages, one must know to be of two descriptions, (viz.) that when one marches together (with an ally) and the contrary (when the allies act separately).

164. War is declared to be of two kinds, (viz.) that which is undertaken in season or out of season, by oneself and for one’s own purposes, and (that waged to avenge) an injury done to a friend.

165. Marching (to attack) is said to be twofold, (viz. that undertaken) by one alone when an urgent matter has suddenly arisen, and (that undertaken) by one allied with a friend.

163. Medh. proposes besides the explanation given above another, ‘ An alliance one must know to be of two kinds, (viz.) that where (the allies) share the danger and the fruits of the expedition and the contrary’ (yanaphalasahitau gakkhavah samanaphalabhagitaya na 4a tvayaham uttambhantyo yatnato lipsite tatas tava bh4go bhavishyati). Nar. thinks that the adjective tadatvayatisamyuktaf, too, refers to two different cases, and means ‘which yields either immediate or future advantages.’ Nand. adopts the latter view as well as Medh.’s second explanation of the first part of the verse.

164. Regarding the expression ‘in season,’ see below, verse 182. Medh. takes ‘out of season’ with the second clause, ‘and (that waged) out of season (in order to avenge) an injury done to a friend.’ He also mentions a var. lect. mitren4pakr’te (which Gov. has adopted), with the following explanation, ‘and that waged out of season when the enemy has been weakened by an ally.’ Gov. agrees with this latter view except that he takes akdle with the first clause. The other commentators give the explanation adopted in the translation.

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166. Sitting quiet is stated to be of two kinds, (viz. that incumbent) on one who has gradually been weakened by fate or in consequence of former acts, and (that) in favour of a friend.

167. If the army stops (in one place) and its master (in another) in order to effect some purpose, that is called by those acquainted with the virtues of the measures of royal policy, the twofold division of the forces.

168. Seeking refuge is declared to be of two kinds, (first) for the purpose of attaining an advantage when one is harassed by enemies, (secondly) in order to become known among the virtuous (as the protégé of a powerful king).

169. When (the king) knows (that) at some future time his superiority (is) certain, and (that) at the time present (he will suffer) little injury, then let him have recourse to peaceful measures.

170. But when he thinks all his subjects to be

166. Pdrvakrttena, ‘in consequence of former acts,’ i.e. ‘in consequence of acts committed in a former existence, or in consequence of former imprudence’ (Medh., Gov., Kull.). Nand. and Ragh. give only the second explanation; Nar. says ‘by an enemy whom he formerly made.’

Pdrvakrttena, ‘in consequence of former acts,’ i.e. ‘in consequence of acts committed in a former existence, or in consequence of former imprudence’ (Medh., Gov., Kull.). Nand. and Ragh. give only the second explanation; Nar. says ‘by an enemy whom he formerly made.’

167. The text really mentions only one method of ‘division.’ Hence Medh. thinks that, in order to obtain the two kinds required, it must be understood that the measure may be resorted to either for one’s own sake or for the sake of somebody else. Nar. makes the two methods out by supposing that in the one case the army stops in front of the enemy under the command of a general, while the king’ marches with a portion of his forces, and that in the other case the contrary takes place. Gov., after giving the explanation adopted in the translation, quotes Kémandaki, Nitiséra XI, 24, where a different meaning, ‘duplicity,’ is attributed to the term dvaidhibh4va. Nand.’s whole explanation consists of this quotation.

170. Tread with all the commentators and K., prahrish/4 instead of prakrish/a (editions).

R 2

p. 171

exceedingly contented, and (that he) himself (is) most exalted (in power), then let him make war.

171. When he knows his own army to be cheerful in disposition and strong, and (that) of his enemy the reverse, then let him march against his foe.

172. But if he is very weak in chariots and beasts of burden and in troops, then let him carefully sit quiet, gradually conciliating his foes.

173. When the king knows the enemy to be stronger in every respect, then let him divide his army and thus achieve his purpose.

174. But when he is very easily assailable by the forces of the enemy, then let him quickly seek refuge with a righteous, powerful king.

175. That (prince) who will coerce both his (disloyal) subjects and the army of the foe, let him ever serve with every effort like a Guru.

176. When, even in that (condition), he sees (that) evil is caused by (such) protection, let him without hesitation have recourse to war.

177. By all (the four) expedients a politic prince must arrange (matters so) that neither friends, nor neutrals, nor foes are superior to himself.

178. Let him fully consider the future and the immediate results of all undertakings, and the good and bad sides of all past (actions).

179. He who knows the good and the evil (which will result from his acts) in the future, is quick in forming resolutions for the present, and understands the consequences of past (actions), will not be conquered.

176. I read with Gov. and K. sa yuddham instead of suyuddham
(Medh., Kull., Ragh., Nand.), ‘let him fight bravely.’

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180, Let him arrange everything in such a manner that no ally, no neutral or foe may injure him; that is the sum of political wisdom.

181. But if the king undertakes an expedition against a hostile kingdom, then let him gradually advance, in the following manner, against his foe’s capital.

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180, Let him arrange everything in such a manner that no ally, no neutral or foe may injure him; that is the sum of political wisdom.

181. But if the king undertakes an expedition against a hostile kingdom, then let him gradually advance, in the following manner, against his foe’s capital.

182. Let the king undertake his march in the fine month Margasirsha, or towards the months of Phalguna and aitra, according to the (condition of his) army.

183. Even at other times, when he has a certain prospect of victory, or when a disaster has befallen his foe, he may advance to attack him.

184. But having duly arranged (all affairs) in his original (kingdom) and what relates to the expedition, having secured a basis (for his operations) and having duly dispatched his spies ;

185. Having cleared the three kinds of roads, and (having made) his sixfold army (efficient), let him leisurely proceed in the manner prescribed for warfare against the enemy's capital.

182. Vi. III, 40; Yagi. I, 347. ‘Fine,’ i.e.‘when fodder and
grain are abundant and the roads dry’ (Gov., Kull., Ragh.).
MArgasirsha, i.e. November~December ; Ph4lguna, i.e. February—
March; Xaitra, i.e. March-April.

184. ‘Having secured a basis (for his operations),’ i.e. ‘having won over the servants of his foe who may be at enmity with their master’ (Medh., Gov., Kull., Ragh.), or ‘having established a camp in the country which he intends to attack’ (N4r.).

185. ‘The three kinds of roads,’ i. e. ‘through the open country, through marshy ground or such as is cut by watercourses, and through forests’ (gangalanipa/vika), (Medh., Gov., Kull. Ragh., Nand.). Né&r. gives the same explanation, but adds that the proper interpretation is ‘through villages, forests, and hills.’ ‘The sixfold army,’ i.e. consisting of ‘elephants, horses, chariots, infantry, the

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186. Let him be very much on his guard against a friend who secretly serves the enemy and against (deserters) who return (from the enemy’s camp); for such (men are) the most dangerous foes.

187, Let him march on his road, arraying (his troops) like a staff (i.e. in an oblong), or like a waggon (i.e. in a wedge), or like a boar (i.e. in a rhombus), or like a Makara (i.e. in two triangles, with the apices joined), or like a pin (i.e. in a long line), or like a Garuda (i.e. in a rhomboid with far-extended wings).

188. From whatever (side) he apprehends danger, in that (direction) let him extend his troops, and let him always himself encamp in an array, shaped like a lotus.

189. Let him allot to the commander-in-chief, to the (subordinate) general, (and to the superior officers) places in all directions, and let him turn his front in that direction whence he fears danger.

general, and workmen’ (Medh., Gov., Kull., Ragh.). Medh. adds that some name as the fifth component ‘the treasury,’ and that others explain the term by ‘the sixfold division, mentioned by Kamandi,’ Nitisdra XVI, 6. The latter view is adopted by Nand. Nar. enumerates besides elephants, horses, chariots, and infantry, the riders on elephants and sdstropandyakas (?).

187. The details regarding the various ways of arranging the troops are found in the Kamandaki, Nitisfra XIX.

188. My translation of the last clause follows Gov., Nar., and R&gh. Medh. says that the king shall leave the town with his army in the lotus-array, and Kull. speaks of a ‘feigned encampment’ (kapasanivesanam kury4t). The lotus-array is stated to be ‘ equally extended on all sides and perfectly circular, the centre being occupied by the king.’

189. Medh. remarks that, as the subordinate general and the commander-in-chief are only two persons, they cannot possibly be stationed ‘in all directions,’ as the text prescribes, and that hence their servants (i.e. the superior officers) must also be intended.

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190. On all sides let him place troops of soldiers, on whom he can rely, with whom signals have been arranged, who are expert both in sustaining a charge and in charging, fearless and loyal.

191. Let him make a small number of soldiers fight in close order, at his pleasure let him extend a large number in loose ranks; or let him make them fight, arranging (a small number) in the needlearray, (and a large number) in the thunderbolt-array.

192. On even ground let him fight with chariots and horses, in water-bound places with boats and elephants, on (ground) covered with trees and shrubs with bows, on hilly ground with swords, targets, (and other) weapons.

193. (Men born in) Kurukshetra, Matsyas, Pa#- AAlas, and those born in Sfrasena, let him cause to fight in the van of the battle, as well as (others who are) tall and light.

194. After arranging his troops, he should encourage them (by an address) and carefully inspect them; he should also mark the behaviour (of the soldiers) when they engage the enemy.

195. When he has shut up his foe (in a town), let him sit encamped, harass his kingdom, and continually spoil his grass, food, fuel, and water.

190. Nar. explains gulm4n, ‘troops of soldiers,’ by gulmadesasthan, ‘(soldiers) standing in thickets’ (?).

192. Sthale, ‘on hilly ground’ (nimnonnate, R4gh.), means according to Medh., Gov., and Kull.‘on ground free from stones, trees, creepers, thorns, pits, and the like.’

190. Nar. explains gulm4n, ‘troops of soldiers,’ by gulmadesasthan, ‘(soldiers) standing in thickets’ (?).

192. Sthale, ‘on hilly ground’ (nimnonnate, R4gh.), means according to Medh., Gov., and Kull.‘on ground free from stones, trees, creepers, thorns, pits, and the like.’

193. Kurukshetra, i.e. the neighbourhood of Delhi; Matsyas, i.e. the inhabitants of Bairffa or Vairaéa, north of Jepur (Bhogapure, Medh.); Pavalas, i.e. the inhabitants of Kanyakubga (Kanog); Sfrasenas, i.e. the inhabitants of the country near Mathura (Ahit/atra, Gov.).

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196. Likewise let him destroy the tanks, ramparts, and ditches, and let him assail the (foe unawgres) and alarm him at night. .

197. Let him instigate to rebellion those who are open to such instigations, let him be informed of his (foe’s) doings, and, when fate is propitious, let him fight without fear, trying to conquer.

198. He should (however) try to conquer his foes by conciliation, by (well-applied) gifts, and by creating dissension, used either separately or conjointly, never by fighting, (if it can be avoided.)

199. For when two (princes) fight, victory and defeat in the battle are, as experience teaches, uncertain ; let him therefore avoid an engagement.

200. (But) if even those three before-mentioned expedients fail, then let him, duly exerting himself, fight in such a manner that he may completely conquer his enemies.

201. When he has gained victory, let him duly worship the gods and honour righteous Brahmazas, let him grant exemptions, and let him cause promises of safety to be proclaimed.

201-205. Vi. III, 47-49; Yaga. I, 342, 348-351.

201. ‘The gods,’ i.e. of the conquered country. Parihardan, ‘exemptions,’ i. e. ‘from taxes and dues for a year or two’ (Medh., Nand.), means according to Gov. ‘gifts to Srotriyas and others’ (srotriyadigatavasyaddneshu mayaitad anugfdtam ity evam); according to Kull. ‘gifts to gods and Brahmamas;’ according to Nar. ‘ Agraharas or villages presented to Brahmamas;’ according to Ragh. ‘gifts of clothes and ornaments to the inhabitants.’ The term parihara occurs very frequently in the inscriptions (see e.g. Arch. Reports of Western India, vol. iv, p. 104 seq.), and means, as the details adduced there show, ‘exemption from taxes and payments as well as other immunities.’ These pariharas were regularly attached to all grants to Brahmamas or temples. In our passage a general temporary remission of the taxes is probably intended.

VII, 207. THE KING. —aag

202. But having fully ascertained the wishes of all the (conquered), let him place there a relative of the (vanquished ruler on the throne), and let him impose his conditions.

203. Let him make authoritative the lawful (customs) of the (inhabitants), just as they are stated (to be), and let him honour the (new king) and his chief servants with precious gifts.

204. The seizure of desirable property which causes displeasure, and its distribution which causes pleasure, are both recommendable, (if they are) resorted to at the proper time.

205. All undertakings (in) this (world) depend both on the ordering of fate and on human exertion ; but among these two (the ways of) fate are unfathomable; in the case of man’s work action is possible.

206. Or (the king, bent on conquest), considering a friend, gold, and land (to be) the triple result (of an expedition), may, using diligent care, make peace with (his foe) and return (to his realm).

207. Having paid due attention to any king in the circle (of neighbouring states) who might attack him in the rear, and to his supporter who opposes

205. Yagi. I, 348. ‘Action,’ i.e. ‘careful investigation,’ hence one should strive to attain one’s ends by exertion (Gov., Kull.), or ‘remedial action’ (pratikriya, N4r.), or ‘an effort’ (purushak4ra, R4gh.). Nand. takes the last clause differently, ‘if there is a human effort, the action of fate takes place’ (manushe purushakare sati daivasya kriy4 vidyate).

206. According to Gov., Kull., and Nar. the meaning is that, if the foe is willing to make an alliance, to pay tribute, and to cede some territory, the king, bent on conquest, may also make peace with him without actually fighting and return home. In the MSS. of Medh. this and the next verses down to verse 211 are wanting, and the commentary on verse 211 is partly given.

207. The meaning of the verse is according to Gov., Kull., andp. 208 the latter, let (the conqueror) secure the fruit of the expedition from(the prince whom he attacks), whether (he may have become) friendly or (remained) hostile.

208. By gaining gold and land a king grows not so much in strength as by obtaining a firm friend, (who), though weak, (may become) powerful in the future.

209. A weak friend (even) is greatly commended, who is righteous (and) grateful, whose people are contented, who is attached and persevering in his undertakings.

210. The wise declare him (to be) a most dangerous foe, who is wise, of noble race, brave, clever, liberal, grateful, and firm.

211. Behaviour worthy of an Aryan, knowledge of men, bravery, a compassionate disposition, and great liberality are the virtues of a neutral (who may be courted).

212. Let the king, without hesitation, quit for his own sake even a country (which is) salubrious, fertile, and causing an increase of cattle.

R4gh. that the king, bent on conquest, shall secure his back before he undertakes an expedition. The prince immediately in his rear, who in the terms of the Niti is called the p&rshwigrdha, ‘the heelcatcher,’ may be supposed to be hostile to him and may be expected to invade his territory during his absence. It is, therefore, essential for the conqueror either to settle matters with him beforehand, or to secure the support of the next neighbour of the parshaigraha, who is technically called the 4kranda and may be supposed to be inclined to check the parshaigraha.

208. Y4gi. I, 351.

211. Sthaulalakshyam, ‘great liberality’ (Kull., Nar., Ragh., Nand.), is explained, as Kull. asserts, by Medh. and Gov. ‘being not sharpsighted.’ The Government copy of Gov. has, however, just the contrary, skshmadarsitvam. Medh.’s explanation is not decipherable.

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213. For times of need let him preserve his wealth; at the expense of his wealth let him preserve his wife ; let him at all events preserve himself even by (giving up) his wife and his wealth.

214. A wise (king), seeing that all kinds of misfortunes violently assail him at the same time, should try all (the four) expedients, be it together or separately, (in order to save himself.)

215. On the person who employs the expedients, on the business to be accomplished, and on all the expedients collectively, on these three let him ponder and strive to accomplish his ends.

216. Having thus consulted with his ministers on all these (matters), having taken exercise, and having bathed afterwards, the king may enter the harem at midday in order to dine.

217. There he may eat food, (which has been prepared) by faithful, incorruptible (servants) who know the (proper) time (for dining), which has been well examined (and hallowed) by sacred texts that destroy poison.

218. Let him mix all his food with medicines (that are) antidotes against poison, and let him always be careful to wear gems which destroy poison.

215. ‘The person who employs the expedients,’ i.e. ‘himself’
(Gov., Kull., Nar., Ragh.); ‘his minister or the like’ (Nand.).
Asritya, ‘let him ponder on’ (manasa bal&balAdidv4ra niséitya,
Nar., Ragh.), means according to Medh., Gov., Kull. ‘let him
depend on.’

217-220. Vi. III, 85, 87-88; Yagi. I, 326.

218. Medh., Gov., N4r., and Nand. read negayet, and R&gh. sodhayet, ‘let him purify,’ instead of yogayet (Kull., K.), ‘let him mix.’ N§&r. explains niyatah (Medh., N&r., Ragh.) or prayataA, ‘careful’ (yatnavan, Gov., Kull., Ragh.), by ‘being pure.’

p. 219

219. Well-tried females whose toilet and ornaments have been examined, shall attentively serve him with fans, water, and perfumes.

220. In like manner let him be careful about his carriages, bed, seat, bath, toilet, and all his ornaments.

p. 219

219. Well-tried females whose toilet and ornaments have been examined, shall attentively serve him with fans, water, and perfumes.

220. In like manner let him be careful about his carriages, bed, seat, bath, toilet, and all his ornaments.

221. When he has dined, he may divert himself with his wives in the harem; but when he has diverted himself, he must, in due time, again think of the affairs of state.

222. Adorned (with his robes of state), let him again inspect his fighting men, all his chariots and beasts of burden, the weapons and accoutrements.

223. Having performed his twilight-devotions, let him, well armed, hear in an inner apartment the doings of those who make secret reports and of his spies.

224. But going to another secret apartment and dismissing those people, he may enter the harem, surrounded by female (servants), in order to dine again,

225. Having eaten there something for the second time, and having been recreated by the sound of music, let him go to rest and rise at the proper time free from fatigue.

226. A king who is in good health must observe these rules; but, if he is indisposed, he may entrust all this (business) to his servants.

223. Yag%. I, 329. ‘Of those who make secret reports,’ i.e.
‘of the ministers and the rest’ (N4r.), or ‘ of citizens who may have
come’ (Medh.).

225. Yagh. I, 330. ‘Something, i.e. ‘not too much.’

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Cuapter VIII.

1. A king, desirous of investigating law cases, must enter his court of justice, preserving a dignified demeanour, together with Brahmazas and with experienced councillors.

2. There, either seated or standing, raising his right arm, without ostentation in his dress and ornaments, let him examine the business of suitors,

3. Daily (deciding) one after another (all cases) which fall under the eighteen titles (of the law) according to principles drawn from local usages and from the Institutes of the sacred law.

4. Of those (titles) the first is the non-payment of debts, (then follow), (2) deposit and pledge, (3) sale without ownership, (4) concerns among partners, and
(5) resumption of gifts,

5. (6) Non-payment of wages, (7) non-performance of agreements, (8) rescission of sale and purchase,
(9) disputes between the owner (of cattle) and his servants, °

6. (10) Disputes regarding boundaries, (11) assault and (12) defamation, (13) theft, (14) robbery and violence, (15) adultery,

VIII. 1. Vi. I, 72; Yager. I, 359; II, 1; Gaut. XIII, 26;
Vas. XVI, 2.

2. ‘Standing,’ i.e. ‘in important cases’ (Medh., Gov., Kull.,
Rgh.). ‘Raising his right arm,’ i. e. ‘keeping it uncovered’ (N4r.,
Nand., Ragh., Gov.). Regarding the meaning of the action, see
above, IV, 58.

3. Gaut. XI, 19-24; Vas. XVI, 4-5. ‘Local usages,’ i.e. ‘ the
law of custom which is not opposed to the Sastras’ (Medh., Gov.,
Kull, Nar.).

4. ‘Non-payment of debts’ (rizasya adanam, N&r., Nand.) may also be translated ‘recovery of debts’ (rinasya 4dinam).

3. Gaut. XI, 19-24; Vas. XVI, 4-5. ‘Local usages,’ i.e. ‘ the
law of custom which is not opposed to the Sastras’ (Medh., Gov.,
Kull, Nar.).

4. ‘Non-payment of debts’ (rizasya adanam, N&r., Nand.) may also be translated ‘recovery of debts’ (rinasya 4dinam).

p. 7

7. (16) Duties of man and wife, (17) partition (of inheritance), (18) gambling and betting; these are in this world the eighteen topics which give rise to lawsuits.

8. Depending on the eternal law, let him decide the suits of men who mostly contend on the titles just mentioned.

g. But if the king does not personally investigate the suits, then let him appoint a learned Brahmaza to try them.

10. That (man) shall enter that most excellent court, accompanied by three assessors, and fully consider (all) causes (brought) before the (king), either sitting down or standing.

11. Where three Brahmamas versed in the Vedas and the learned (judge) appointed by the king sit down, they call that the court of (four-faced) Brahman.

12. But where justice, wounded by injustice, approaches and the judges do not extract the dart, there: (they also) are woundéd (by that dart of injustice). ‘

13. Either the court must not be entered, or the truth must be spoken ; a man who either says nothing or speaks falsely, becomes sinful.

4. Vyavahfrasthitau, ‘ which give rise to lawsuits’ (Gov.), means according to Nar. ‘in deciding lawsuits.’

8. The word ‘ mostly’ is intended to show that there are other
titles besides, as Narada declared (Medh., Gov., Kull., Nar., Ragh.).
Nand. omits this verse.

g. Vi. III, 73; Yagn. II, 3; Gaut. XIII, 26; Vas. XVI, 2.

1o. Medh. says ‘ by (at least) three assessors.’

13. ‘Must not be entered,’ i.e. ‘for the purpose of deciding causes’ (Gov., Kull., Ragh.). But the further details show that the verse is intended as a general maxim, applicable to witnesses also.

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14. Where justice is destroyed by injustice, or truth by falsehood, while the judges look on, there they shall also be destroyed.

15. ‘Justice, being violated, destroys; justice, being preserved, preserves: therefore justice must not be violated, lest violated justice destroy us.’

16. For divine justice (is said to be) a bull
(vvzsha); that (man) who violates it (kurute ‘lam)
the gods consider to be (a man despicable like) a
Sfidra (vvzshala); let him, therefore, beware of violating justice.

17. The only friend who follows men even after death is justice; for everything else is lost at the same time when the body (perishes),

18. One quarter of (the guilt of) an unjust (decision) falls on him who committed (the crime), one quarter on the (false) witness, one quarter on all the judges, one quarter on the king.

19. But where he who is worthy of condemnation is condemned, the king is free from guilt, and the judges are saved (from sin); the guilt falls on the perpetrator (of the crime alone).

20. A Brahmaza who subsists only by the name of his caste (gati), or one who merely calls himself a Brahmaza (though his origin be uncertain), may, at the king’s pleasure, interpret the law to him, but never a Sédra.

15. This admonition must be addressed by the assessors to a judge who acts against the law (Gov., Kull., Ragh.). Nand. reads vah, ‘you,’ instead of naJ, ‘us.’

18. Gaut. XIII, 11; Baudh. I, 19, 8. Sabh4sada/, ‘the judges,’ means according to Gov. ‘all those in court who look on.’ The judge and his assessors are, however, the persons really intended.

20. ‘One who subsists only by the name of his caste,’ i.e. ‘a man of Bréhmana descent, who neither studies nor performs any other

p. 21

21. The kingdom of that monarch, who looks on while a Sidra settles the law, will sink (low), like a cow in a morass.

22. That kingdom where Sddras are very numerous, which is infested by atheists and destitute of twice-born (inhabitants), soon entirely perishes, afflicted by famine and disease.

23. Having occupied the seat of justice, having covered his body, and having worshipped the guardian deities of the world, let him, with a collected mind, begin the trial of causes.

24. Knowing what is expedient or inexpedient, what is pure justice or injustice, let him examine the causes of suitors according to the order of the castes (varna).

act required by the sacred law’ (Kull., Ragh.), or ‘one who has not been initiated’ (N&r.). Braéhmazabruva’, ‘one who merely calls himself a Brahmaza (though his origin be doubtful,’ Kull., Ragh.), means according to N4&r. ‘an initiated Brahmaza who does not study the Veda.’ Medh. and Gov. take the two terms as referring to one person only, ‘Even a despicable Brahmaaa, who subsists merely by the name of his race,’ i.e. neither studies the Veda, nor performs the rites, &c. The commentators point out that, as the employment of a Sadra is emphatically forbidden, Kshatriyas and Vaisyas may be employed in cases of necessity.

22. Sidrabhfyish‘am, ‘where Sfidras are very numerous’ (Gov., Kull., Ragh.), means according to Medh. ‘where SQdras mostly decide the law-cases,’ according to Nand. ‘where Sfdras are mostly employed in high offices.’ Nd&r. adds that each of the blemishes enumerated is sufficient to cause destruction.

Sidrabhfyish‘am, ‘where Sfidras are very numerous’ (Gov., Kull., Ragh.), means according to Medh. ‘where SQdras mostly decide the law-cases,’ according to Nand. ‘where Sfdras are mostly employed in high offices.’ Nd&r. adds that each of the blemishes enumerated is sufficient to cause destruction.

24. Medh. and R&gh. give another optional explanation of the participial clause, ‘ Understanding that pure justice secures advantages and mere injustice disadvantages.’ According to Kull. it means ‘Knowing what is expedient and what inexpedient, but paying attention to justice and injustice alone.’ Nr. and Nand. give still more unacceptable interpretations. Gov., who considers the explanation adopted above the only correct one, explains ‘what is expedient’ by ‘ what will please the people,’ and ‘what is inex

p. 257

25. By external signs let him discover the internal disposition of men, by their voice, their colour, their motions, their aspect, their eyes, and their gestures. ,

26. The internal (working of the) mind is perceived through the aspect, the motions, the gait, the gestures, the speech, and the changes in the eye and of the face.

27. The king shall protect the inherited (and other) property of a minor, until he has returned (from his teacher's house) or until he has passed his minority.

28. In like manner care must be taken of barren women, of those who have no sons, of those whose family is extinct, of wives and widows faithful to their lords, and of women afflicted with diseases.

pedient’ by ‘what will make them angry;’ Kull. and Ragh. by ‘what will protect the people’ and ‘ what will destroy them.’

25-26. Y4on. II, 15.

25. Gov. omits svara, ‘ voice,’ and writes mukha, ‘ by the colour of the face.’ Ingita, ‘ motions,’ i. e. ‘trembling, horripilation, &c.’ (Medh., Gov., Ragh.), or ‘looking down, &c.’ (Kull.), or ‘ unintentionally moving the arms, &c.’ (N4r.). Aké4ra, aspect,’ i.e. ‘pallor, &c.’ (Gov.), or ‘sweating, horripilation, &c.’ (Kull., Nar.) Medh. and R4gh. take 4k4ra to mean ‘the manner’ of the voice, &c., not as a separate class of signs. eshfita, ‘ gestures,’ i.e. ‘moving, wringing the hands, &c.’ (Gov., Kull., Ragh.), or ‘intentional movements’ (Nar.).

27-29. Gaut. X, 48; Vas. XVI, 8; Vi. III, 65.

27. ‘The minority ends with the sixteenth year’ (Kull., Nar.) ; see Narada ITI, 37. The second term is intended to provide for the case of those who finish their Veda-study before the sixteenth year (Medh., Kull.), or of Siidras (Medh.).

28. ‘Those whose family is extinct,’ i.e. ‘maidens in that condition’ (Gov.), or ‘those who have quitted their families and become harlots’ (Medh. ‘ others’). ‘ Wives faithful to their lords,’ i. e. ‘those whose husbands are absent’ (Gov. Ragh.). The conditions

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p. 29

29. A righteous king must punish like thieves those relatives who appropriate the property of such females during their lifetime.