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1profoundly modified by its author in the later and more practical dialogue, " The Laws," yet a flood of instructive light is incidentally thrown on numberless problems of real life, political and social, as well as moral. The opening scene has always been especially admired, the discussion on old age containing nearly all the best thoughts embodied three centuries later by Cicero in his essay, " De Senectute. The rest of Book I is less important, the various current definitions of justice being set up only to be bowled over, more or less fairly, by Socrates. It is in Book II that the ideal State, with its three classes, is interestingly developed. The division and subdivision of mechanical labor are advocated in phrases that often sound strangely modern. Education is the especial subject of Book III. Poetry and music must be austerely and rigidly limited to the creation of better citizens. The attack directed at this point against the ignoble theology of Homer is a magnificent piece of literary criticism. Myths are to be invented expressly to justify the organization of the State. Individuals are to pass easily from one to another class, according to their fitness. Already in Book IV justice is defined as the force that keeps the three elements in equilibrium and each devoted to its proper functions. The analogy to the individual man is now elaborately pointed out. The conclusion is solemnly urged that justice is the only path to prosperity and happiness, whether for a State or a man. The original subject seems all but exhausted at this point. The fifth book will shock nearly all readers. Socrates is here forced to explain in detail the plans by which he would destroy the family altogether, prevent each child from ever knowing who were his actual parents, and all parents from ever singling out their own offspring. Woman, to Plato, is but lesser man. She must share all gymnastic exposure and training, with the tasks of war, to the limit of her powers. Books VI and VII discuss, in a higher and more mystical Strain, the philosophic education of those who are to be the guardians of the commonwealth. The argument culminates in what we now call transcendentalism; that is, all the sensual phenomena of our world are but unsubstantial shadows
2of the eternal and divine realities, to which true education should direct the spiritual vision. At the beginning of Book VII occurs the most famous of Plato's similes. Tliis world is likened to a cave wherein we sit as prisoners, facing away from the light, and seeing only distorted shadows of realities. Books VIII and IX form, again, a single important section. Here the baser forms of commonwealth are treated as progressive stages of degeneracy and decay from the ideal State. The analogy with the individual man is still insisted upon at every stage. The whole discussion has close and practical relations with the actual history of various Greek city-States, and is full of political wisdom. Book X is largely taken up with a renewed attack upon poetry in what men still consider its noblest forms. Especially to be condemned, as we are told, is its efifect in widening our human sympathies! Lastly, the rewards of justice are described. Since they are often clearly inadequate as seen in this life, the immortality of the soul, and the tanerrin^ equity of the Divine Judge, are revealed in a magnificent myth, or vision of judgment. The thoughtful reader will prefer to keep his notebook in hand, and to build up for himself a much more detailed analysis. He should not fail to notice the consummate grace with which evei-y transition in the wide-ranging discussion is managed, and often concealed. No one can or should read the " Republic " in a spirit of unquestioning approval. The furious assault by this great poet, myth-maker, and imaginative artist generally, upon his fellow-craftsmen in that guild, must remind us that he is at times a perverse, even a self-contradictory doctrinaire. The proposal to dissolve all true family ties is a still more atrocious attack on the holiest and most helpful of human institutions. In regarding our earthly life as a mere purgatorial transition between two other and infinitely more important states of being, Plato again broke boldly with the prevailing Hellenic sentiments of his day. Here, however, the large Hebraic and Oriental element in the creeds of Christendom enables us to understand, often to sympathize with, utterances which then seemed novel and startling. In general, no thoughtful man or woman can turn the pages of the " Republic " without infinite enrichment and widening of
3SPECIAL INTRODUCTION xi mental range. It has had a great influence on all later visions of ideal States: hut especially is this true, and indeed freely and frequently avowed, in the Utopia of Sir Thomas More. The version of all Plato's works by Professor Jowett is the most important piece of translation made during the last generation, at least ; it has added to our own literature a masterpiece of artistic form and manifold wisdom. The rendering is not slavishly literal, but all the more faithful to the spirit. In the " Republic " the style of Plato himself is usually so transparent that very little need of annotation will be felt. We may, however, in closing, mention a few helps for the special student of Plato. The chief standard work in English is Grote's " Plato and the other Companions of Socrates," in which each dialogue is carefully discussed. Walter Pater's " Plato and Platonism " is the best of brief compendiums. Zeller's " History of Ancient Philosophy," in German, or in English translation, is indispensable to the thorough student. CONTENTS BOOK I PACE Of Wealth, Justice, Moderation, and their Opposites i BOOK II The Individual, the State, and Education 35 BOOK III The Arts in Education 66 - BOOK IV Wealth, Poverty, and Virtue 105 BOOK V On Matrimony and Philosophy 137 BOOK VI The Philosophy of Government 176 BOOK VII On Shadows and Realities in Education 209 BOOK VIII Four Forms of Government 240 BOOK IX On Wrong or Right Government, and the Pleasures of Each 272 BOOK X The Recompense of Life 299 ^ ILLUSTRATIONS
The source text as printed, transcribed diplomatically. Where the source language uses a non-Latin script that reaches us only through a Victorian romanisation, this layer is labelled transliteration, because that is what we hold.
1profoundly modified by its author in the later and more practical dialogue, " The Laws," yet a flood of instructive light is incidentally thrown on numberless problems of real life, political and social, as well as moral. The opening scene has always been especially admired, the discussion on old age containing nearly all the best thoughts embodied three centuries later by Cicero in his essay, " De Senectute. The rest of Book I is less important, the various current definitions of justice being set up only to be bowled over, more or less fairly, by Socrates. It is in Book II that the ideal State, with its three classes, is interestingly developed. The division and subdivision of mechanical labor are advocated in phrases that often sound strangely modern. Education is the especial subject of Book III. Poetry and music must be austerely and rigidly limited to the creation of better citizens. The attack directed at this point against the ignoble theology of Homer is a magnificent piece of literary criticism. Myths are to be invented expressly to justify the organization of the State. Individuals are to pass easily from one to another class, according to their fitness. Already in Book IV justice is defined as the force that keeps the three elements in equilibrium and each devoted to its proper functions. The analogy to the individual man is now elaborately pointed out. The conclusion is solemnly urged that justice is the only path to prosperity and happiness, whether for a State or a man. The original subject seems all but exhausted at this point. The fifth book will shock nearly all readers. Socrates is here forced to explain in detail the plans by which he would destroy the family altogether, prevent each child from ever knowing who were his actual parents, and all parents from ever singling out their own offspring. Woman, to Plato, is but lesser man. She must share all gymnastic exposure and training, with the tasks of war, to the limit of her powers. Books VI and VII discuss, in a higher and more mystical Strain, the philosophic education of those who are to be the guardians of the commonwealth. The argument culminates in what we now call transcendentalism; that is, all the sensual phenomena of our world are but unsubstantial shadows
2of the eternal and divine realities, to which true education should direct the spiritual vision. At the beginning of Book VII occurs the most famous of Plato's similes. Tliis world is likened to a cave wherein we sit as prisoners, facing away from the light, and seeing only distorted shadows of realities. Books VIII and IX form, again, a single important section. Here the baser forms of commonwealth are treated as progressive stages of degeneracy and decay from the ideal State. The analogy with the individual man is still insisted upon at every stage. The whole discussion has close and practical relations with the actual history of various Greek city-States, and is full of political wisdom. Book X is largely taken up with a renewed attack upon poetry in what men still consider its noblest forms. Especially to be condemned, as we are told, is its efifect in widening our human sympathies! Lastly, the rewards of justice are described. Since they are often clearly inadequate as seen in this life, the immortality of the soul, and the tanerrin^ equity of the Divine Judge, are revealed in a magnificent myth, or vision of judgment. The thoughtful reader will prefer to keep his notebook in hand, and to build up for himself a much more detailed analysis. He should not fail to notice the consummate grace with which evei-y transition in the wide-ranging discussion is managed, and often concealed. No one can or should read the " Republic " in a spirit of unquestioning approval. The furious assault by this great poet, myth-maker, and imaginative artist generally, upon his fellow-craftsmen in that guild, must remind us that he is at times a perverse, even a self-contradictory doctrinaire. The proposal to dissolve all true family ties is a still more atrocious attack on the holiest and most helpful of human institutions. In regarding our earthly life as a mere purgatorial transition between two other and infinitely more important states of being, Plato again broke boldly with the prevailing Hellenic sentiments of his day. Here, however, the large Hebraic and Oriental element in the creeds of Christendom enables us to understand, often to sympathize with, utterances which then seemed novel and startling. In general, no thoughtful man or woman can turn the pages of the " Republic " without infinite enrichment and widening of
3SPECIAL INTRODUCTION xi mental range. It has had a great influence on all later visions of ideal States: hut especially is this true, and indeed freely and frequently avowed, in the Utopia of Sir Thomas More. The version of all Plato's works by Professor Jowett is the most important piece of translation made during the last generation, at least ; it has added to our own literature a masterpiece of artistic form and manifold wisdom. The rendering is not slavishly literal, but all the more faithful to the spirit. In the " Republic " the style of Plato himself is usually so transparent that very little need of annotation will be felt. We may, however, in closing, mention a few helps for the special student of Plato. The chief standard work in English is Grote's " Plato and the other Companions of Socrates," in which each dialogue is carefully discussed. Walter Pater's " Plato and Platonism " is the best of brief compendiums. Zeller's " History of Ancient Philosophy," in German, or in English translation, is indispensable to the thorough student. CONTENTS BOOK I PACE Of Wealth, Justice, Moderation, and their Opposites i BOOK II The Individual, the State, and Education 35 BOOK III The Arts in Education 66 - BOOK IV Wealth, Poverty, and Virtue 105 BOOK V On Matrimony and Philosophy 137 BOOK VI The Philosophy of Government 176 BOOK VII On Shadows and Realities in Education 209 BOOK VIII Four Forms of Government 240 BOOK IX On Wrong or Right Government, and the Pleasures of Each 272 BOOK X The Recompense of Life 299 ^ ILLUSTRATIONS
The source text as printed, transcribed diplomatically. Where the source language uses a non-Latin script that reaches us only through a Victorian romanisation, this layer is labelled transliteration, because that is what we hold.
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