The Lî Kî, Books XI–XLVI — Sacred Books of China Part IV, SBE Vol. 28 (trans. James Legge, 1885)
English·1879–1910·trans. James Legge·324 passages
The text · part 3 of 16
11. Where the starting-point was affection, it began from the father. Going up from him by degrees it reached to the (high) ancestor, and was said to diminish. Where the starting-point was the consideration of what is right, it began with the ancestor. Coming down by natural degrees from him, it reached to the father, and was said to increase. In the diminution and the increase, the considerations of affection and right acted thus.
12. It was the way for the ruler to assemble and feast all the members of .his kindred. None of
1 As to the ruler, Great officers, and ministers.
* See paragraph 6.
5 Spinsters and married aunts, cousins, sisters, &c.
* Relatives dying as minors, and after maturity.
5 See next paragraph.
® Mother’s kin; husband’s kin; wife’s kin.
7 As when a minister wore mourning for his ruler’s kindred ; a concubine for the kindred of the wife, &c. The reader must task himself to imagine cases in which the other four conditions would apply.
p. 65
them could, because of their mutual kinship, claim a nearer kinship with him than what was expressed by the places (assigned to them).
13. Any son but the eldest, (though all sons of the wife proper), did not sacrifice to his grandfather,— to show there was the Honoured Head (who should do so). Nor could he wear mourning for his eldest son for three years, because he was not the continuator of his grandfather '.
14. When any other son but the eldest became an ancestor of a line, he who succeeded him became the Honoured Head (of the branch) ; and his successor again became the smaller Head}.
15. There was the (great) Honoured Head whose r tablet was not removed for a hundred generations, There were the (smaller) Honoured Heads whose tablets were ‘removed after five generations. He whose tablet was not removed for a hundred generations was the successor and representative of the other than the eldest son (who became an ancestor of a line); and he was so honoured (by the members of his line) because he continued the (High) ancestor from whom (both) he and they sprang; this was why his tablet was not removed for a hundred génerations. He who honoured the continuator of the High ancestor was he whose tablet was removed after five generations, They honoured the Ancestor, and therefore they reverenced the Head. The reverence showed the significance of that honour.
16. There might be cases in which there was a smaller Honoured Head, and no Greater Head (of
1 See the last Book, I, paragraphs 10-12. (28] F
66 THE Lf xt. BK. x1¥.
a branch family); cases in which there was a Greater Honoured Head, and no smaller Head; and cases in which there was an Honoured Head, with none to honour him. All these might exist in the instance of the son of the ruler of 4 state’.
(28] F
66 THE Lf xt. BK. x1¥.
a branch family); cases in which there was a Greater Honoured Head, and no smaller Head; and cases in which there was an Honoured Head, with none to honour him. All these might exist in the instance of the son of the ruler of 4 state’.
The course to be adopted for the headship of such a son was this; that the ruler, himself the proper representative of former rulers, should for all his half-brothers who were officers and Great officers appoint a full brother, also an officer or a Great officer, to be the Honoured Head. Such was the regular course.
17. When the kinship was no longer counted, there was no further wearing of mourning. The kinship was the bond of connexion (expressed in the degree of mourning).
18, Where the starting-point was in affection, it began with the father, and ascended by steps to the ancestor. Where it was in a consideration of what was right, it began with the ancestor, and descended in natural order to the deceased father. Thus the course of humanity (in this matter of mourning) was all comprehended in the love for kindred.
NQ 19. From the affection for parents came the onouring of ancestors ; from the honouring of the
H a 1 Suppose a ruler had no brother by his father’s wife, and — appointed one of his brothers by another lady of the harem, to take the headship of all the others, this would represent the first case. Ifhe appointed a full brother to the position, but could not appoint a half-brother to the inferior position, this would represent the second; and if the younger brothers of the ruling house were reduced to one man, he would represent the third case, having merely the name and nothing more. Such is the explanation of
- the text, so far as I can apprehend it,
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ancestor came the respect and attention shown to the Heads (of the family branches). By that respect and attention to those Heads all the members of the kindred were kept together. Through their being kept together came the dignity of the ancestral temple. From that dignity arose the importance attached to the altars of the land and grain. From that importance there ensued the love of all the (people with their) hundred surnames. From that love came the right administration of punishments and penalties. Through that administration the people had the feeling of repose. Through that restfulness all resources for expenditure became sufficient Through the sufficiency of these, what all desired was realised. The realisation led to all courteous usages and good customs; and from these, in fine, came all happiness and enjoyment :—affording an illustration of what is said in the ode :—
‘Glory and honour follow Wan’s great name, And ne'er will men be weary of his fame?’
1 See vol. iii, page 314, the last two lines of ode 1; Metrical Version, page 351.
F2
BOOK XV. SHAO f
OR
~SMALLER RULES OF DEMEANOUR'.
1. I have heard (the following things) :—
iii, page 314, the last two lines of ode 1; Metrical Version, page 351.
F2
BOOK XV. SHAO f
OR
~SMALLER RULES OF DEMEANOUR'.
1. I have heard (the following things) :—
When one wished to see for the first time another of character and position, his language was, ‘I, so and so, earnestly wish my name to be reported to the officer of communication®.’ He could not go up the steps directly to the host. If the visitor were of equal rank with the host, he said, ‘I, so and so, earnestly wish to see him.’ If he were an infrequent visitor, he asked his name to be reported. If he were a frequent visitor, he added, ‘this morning or evening. If he were blind’, he asked his name to be reported.
2. If it were on an occasion of mourning, the visitor said he had come as a servant and helper; if he were a youth, that he had come to perform whatever might be required of him. If the visit were at the mourning rites for a ruler or high minister, the language was, ‘I am come to be employed by the chief minister of the household¢.’
1 See the introductory notice, vol. xxvii, pages 31, 32.
® The visitor did not dare to send even a message directly to the master of the establishment where he was calling.
8 That is, an officer of music, high or low.
“ The name of the minister here is generally translated by ‘Minister of Instruction.’ But that can hardly be its meaning here; and there were officers so called also in the establishments of Great officers; see vol. xxvii, page 154, paragraph 20,
-.
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3. When a ruler was about to go out of his own state', if a minister were presenting to him money or pieces of jade, or any other article, the language was, ‘I present this to the officer for the expenses of his horses.’ To an equal in a similar case it was said, ‘This is presented for the use of your followers.’
4. When a minister contributed a shroud to his ruler, he said, ‘I send this laid-aside garment to the valuers,’ An equal, sending such a gift to another equal, simply said, ‘a shroud.’ Relatives, such as brothers, did not go in with the shrouds which they presented.
5. When a minister was contributing articles or their value to his ruler who had mourning rites on hand for the previous ruler, he said, ‘I present these products of my fields to the officers’,’
6. A carriage and horses presented for a funeral, entered the gate of the ancestral temple. Contributions of money and horses with the accompanying presents of silk, the white flag (of a mourning carriage) and war chariots, did not enter the gate of the temple‘.
7. When the bearer of the contribution had
? About to proceed to the royal court.
2 In the K4u Lt, Book I, 35, we find that among the functionaries attached to the ‘ Treasury of Jade,’ there were eight men thus denominated ‘valuers.’ There were officers, probably, performing a similar duty in the department to which the charge of the offering in this paragraph would be consigned.
5 The things presented here are called ‘articles (coarse), shells’ ( A), the meaning being, I think, what I have given. The things were not the produce of the donor’s land; but that land being held by him from the ruler, he so expressed himself.
* It is difficult for us to appreciate the reasons given for the distinction made between these contributions.
7O THE uf xi. BK. Xv.
delivered his message, he knelt down and left the things on the ground. The officer of communication took them up. The presiding mourner did not himself receive them.
8. When the receiver stood, the giver stood ; neither knelt. Parties of a straightforward character might, perhaps, do so.
9. When (the guest was) first entering, and it was proper to give the precedence to him, the officer of communication said (to the host), ‘Give precedence.’ | When they proceeded to their mats, he said to them, ‘Yes ; be seated.’
When the leaves of the door were opened, only one man could take off his shoes inside the door. If there were already an honourable and elderly visitor, parties coming later could not do so.
10. When asking about the various dishes (of a feast), they said, ‘Have you enjoyed such and such a dish?’
When asking one another about their (various) courses! and accomplishments?, they said, ‘Have you practised such and such a course? Are you skilful at such and such an accomplishment ?’
11. (A man sought to) give no occasion for doubt about himself, nor to pass his judgment on the articles of others. He did not desire the (possessions of) great families, nor speak injuriously of the things which they valued.
12. Sweeping in general was called sio. Sweep-
1 There was the threefold course of aim, diligence, and filial duty, in filialness, friendship, and obedience.
* The accomplishments were six :—ceremonies, music, archery, charioteering, writing, mathematics.
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ing up in front of a mat was called phdn. In sweeping a mat they did not use a common broom!. The sweeper held the dust-pan with its tongue towards himself.
13. There was no divining (twice about the same thing) with a double mind. In asking about what had been referred to the tortoise-shell or the stalks, two things were to be considered, whether the thing asked about were right, and what was the diviner's own mind. On the matter of right he might be questioned, but not on what was in his own mind
In asking about what had been referred to the tortoise-shell or the stalks, two things were to be considered, whether the thing asked about were right, and what was the diviner's own mind. On the matter of right he might be questioned, but not on what was in his own mind
14. When others more honourable and older than one’s self took precedence of him, he did not presume to ask their age. When they came to feast with him, he did not send to them any (formal) message. When he met them on the road, if they saw him, he went up to them, but did. not ask to know where they were going. At funeral rites for them, he waited to observe the movements (of the presiding mourner), and did not offer his special condolences. When seated by them, he did not, unless ordered to do so, produce his lutes. He did not draw lines on the ground; that would have been an improper use of his hand. He did not use a fan. If they were asleep, and he had any message to communicate to them, he knelt in doing so.
15. At the game of archery, the inferior carried his four arrows in his hand. At that of throwing darts, he carried the four together in his breast. If he conquered, he washed the cup and gave it to the other, asking him to drink. If he were defeated, the elder went through the same process with him. They
* It might be dirty, having been used to sweep the ground.
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did not use the (large) horn; they did not remove the (figure of a) horse (for marking the numbers)}.
16. When holding the reins of the ruler’s horses, the driver knelt. He wore his sword on his right side with his back to the best strap (for the ruler). When handing this to him, he faced him and then drew the strap towards the cross-bar. He used the second or inferior strap to help himself in mounting. He then took the reins in hand, and began to move on,
17. One asked permission to appear at court, but not to withdraw.
One was said to withdraw from court; to return home from a feast or a ramble; to close the toils of a campaign.
18. When sitting by a person of rank, if he began to yawn and stretch himself, to turn round his tablet, to play with the head of his sword, to move his shoes about, or to ask about the time of day, one might ask leave to retire.
19. For one who (wished to) serve his ruler, (the rule was) first to measure (his abilities and duties), and then enter (on the responsibilities); he did not enter on these, and then measure those. There was the same rule for all who begged or borrowed from others, or sought to engage in their service. In this. way superiors had no ground for offence, and inferiors avoided all risk of guilt.
20. They did not spy into privacies nor form intimacies on matters aside from their proper business. They did not speak of old affairs, nor wear an appearance of being in sport.
} See in Book XXXVII.
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20. They did not spy into privacies nor form intimacies on matters aside from their proper business. They did not speak of old affairs, nor wear an appearance of being in sport.
} See in Book XXXVII.
BK. Xv, sHAO f. 73
21. One in the position of a minister and inferior might remonstrate (with his ruler), but not speak ill of him; might withdraw (from the state), but not (remain and) hate (its Head); might praise him, but not flatter; might remonstrate, but not give himself haughty airs (when his advice was followed). (If the ruler were) idle and indifferent, he might arouse and assist him; if (the government) were going to wreck, he might sweep it away, and institute a new one. Such a minister would be pronounced as doing service for the altars (of the state).
22. Do not commence or abandon anything hastily. Do not take liberties with or weary spiritual Beings. Do not try to defend or cover over what was wrong in the past, or to fathom what has not yet arrived. A scholar should constantly pursue what is virtuous, and amuse himself with the accomplishments.
A workman should follow the rules (of his art), and amuse himself with the discussion (of their application). One should not think about the clothes and elegant articles (of others), nor try to make good in himself what is doubtful in words (which he has heard) 1.
23. The style prized in conversation required that it should be grave and distinct. The demeanour prized in the court required that it should be
1 These cautions are expressed enigmatically in the text. The expurgated edition gives only the third and fourth, which P. Callery translates thus:—‘ L’homme de lettres s’applique 4 la vertu pardessus tout, et ne s’adonne que d’une fagon secondaire & la culture des arts libéraux, semblable en cela & l’ouvrier qui suit d’abord les procédés fondamentaux de son art, et ne discute qu ‘apres les changements & introduire dans leur application.’
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well regulated and urbane; that at sacrifices was to be grave, with an appearance of anxiety. The horses of the chariot were to be well-paced and matched. The beauty of their bells was that they intimated dignity and harmony '.
24. To a question about the age of a ruler’s son, if he were grown up, it was said, ‘ He is able to attend to the business of the altars.’ If he were still young, it was said, ‘He is able to drive,’ or ‘He is not yet able to drive.’ To the same question about a Great officer's son, if he were grown up, it was said, ‘He is able to take his part in music ;’ if still young, it was said, ‘He is able to take lessons from the music-master, or ‘ He is not yet able to do so.” To the same question about the son of an ordinary officer, if he were grown up, it was said, ‘ He is able to guide the plough;’ if he were still young, it was said, ‘He is able to carry firewood,’ or ‘ He is not yet able to do so.’
25. When carrying a symbol of jade, a tortoiseshell, or the divining stalks, one did not walk hastily. Nor did he do so in the raised hall, or on a city wall. In a war chariot he did not bow forward to the cross-bar. A man in his mail did not try to bow *.
26. A wife, on festive occasions, even though it were on receiving a gift from the ruler, (only) made
’ This paragraph is in the expurgated edition, in the commentary to which, however, the whole is understood with reference to the heir-son of the kingdom or a state; and P. Callery translates accordingly :—* (L’héritier présomptif du tréne) doit avoir,’ &c.
* Compare vol. xxvii, page 115, paragraph 4.
* Compare vol. xxvii, page 72, paragraph 30; page 96, paragraph 39; et al
BK. XV. sHAo f. 75
a curtsy’, When seated as a personatrix (of the deceased grandmother of her husband), she did not bow with her head to her hands, but made the curtsy*, When presiding at the mourning rites, she did not bow with her head to her hands lowered to the ground.
27. (After the sacrifice of repose), her head-band was of dolychos cloth, and her girdle of hempen.
28. When taking meat from a stand or putting meat on it, they did not kneel.
29. An empty vessel was carried (with the same care) as a full one, and an empty apartment entered (with the same reverence) as if there were people in it.
30. At all sacrifices, whether in the apartment or in the hall, they did not have their feet bare. At a feast they might.
31. Till they had offered a portion in the temple, they did not eat of a new crop.
32. In the case of a charioteer and the gentleman whom he was driving, when the latter mounted or descended, the other handed him the strap. When the driver first mounted, he bowed towards the cross-bar. When the gentleman descended to walk, (he also descended), but (immediately) returned to the carriage and stood.
33. The riders in an attendant carriage (to court or temple), bowed forward to the bar, but not if it were to battle or hunt. Of such attendant carriages, the ruler of a state had seven; a Great officer of the highest grade, five; and one of the lowest grade, three 1.
1 In Chinese fashion, an inclination of the head towards the hands.
* Some interpret this as saying that she did not even make the curtsy.
76 THE Lf xf. BK. XV.
34. People did not speak of the age of the horses or of the carriages of those who pos sessed such attendant carriages; nor did they put a value on the dress, or sword, or horses of a gentleman whom they saw before them.
BK. XV.
the highest grade, five; and one of the lowest grade, three 1.
34. People did not speak of the age of the horses or of the carriages of those who pos sessed such attendant carriages; nor did they put a value on the dress, or sword, or horses of a gentleman whom they saw before them.
35. In giving (to an inferior) or offering to a superior, four pots of spirits, a bundle of dried meat, and a dog, (the messenger) put down the liquor, and carried (only) the dried meat in his hand, when discharging his commission, but he also said that he was the bearer of four pots of spirits, a bundle of dried meat, and a dog. In presenting a tripod of flesh, he carried (one piece) in his hand. In presenting birds, if there were more than a couple, he carried a couple in his hand, leaving the others outside.
36. The dog was held by a rope. A watch dog or a hunting dog was given to the officer who was the medium of communication ; and on receiving it, he asked its name. An ox was held by the tether, and a horse by the bridle. They were both kept on the right of him who led them; but a prisoner or captive, who was being presented, was kept on the left.
37. In presenting a carriage, the strap was taken off and carried in the hand of the messenger. In presenting a coat of mail, if there were other things to be carried before it, the messenger bore them. If there were no such things, he took offits covering, and bore the helmet in his hands. In the case of a
1 Compare vol. xxvii, page 125, paragraph 4.
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vessel, he carried its cover. In the case of a bow, with his left hand he stript off the case, and took hold of the middle of the back. In the case of a sword, he opened the cover of its case, and placed it underneath. Then he put into the case a silken cloth, on which he placed the sword.
38. Official tablets; writings; stalks of dried flesh ; parcels wrapped in reeds; bows; cushions ; mats ; pillows; stools; spikes; staffs; lutes, large and small; sharp-edged lances in sheaths; divining stalks ; and flutes :—these all were borne with the left hand upwards, Of sharp-pointed weapons, the point was kept behind, and the ring presented; of sharp-edged weapons, the handle was presented. In the case of all sharp-pointed andsharp-edged weapons, the point was turned away in handing them to others.
39. When leaving the city, in mounting a warchariot, the weapon was carried with the point in front ; when returning and entering it again, the end. The left was the place for the general and officers of an army; the right, for the soldiers.
40. For visitors and guests the principal thing was a courteous humility ; at sacrifices, reverence ; at mourning rites, sorrow; at meetings and reunions, an active interest. In the operations of war, the dangers had to be thought of. One concealed his own feelings in order to judge the better of those of others.
In the operations of war, the dangers had to be thought of. One concealed his own feelings in order to judge the better of those of others.
41. When feasting with a man of superior rank and character, the guest first tasted the dishes and then stopt. He should not bolt the food, nor swill down the liquor. He should take small and frequent mouthfuls. While chewing quickly, he did not make faces with his mouth, When he
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proceeded to remove the dishes, and the host declined that service from him, he stopt?.
42. The cup with which the guest was pledged was placed on the left; those which had been drunk (by the others) on the right. Those of the guest's attendant, of the host himself, and of the host's assistant ;—these all were placed on the right *.
43. In putting down a boiled fish to’ be eaten, the tail was laid in front. In winter it was placed with the fat belly on the right; in summer with the back. The slices offered in sacrifice (to the father of the fish-diet were thus more easily cut *).
44. All condiments were taken up with the right (hand), and were therefore placed on the left,
45. He who received the presents offered (to the ruler) was on his left; he who transmitted his words, on the right.
46. A cup was poured out for the driver of a personator of the dead as for the driver of the ruler. In the carriage, and holding the reins in his left hand, he received the cup with his right; offered a little in sacrifice at the end of the axle and cross-
* Compare vol. xxvii, pages 80, 81, paragraphs 54, 57, et al The writer passes in this paragraph from the indicative to the imperative mood.
% The guest sat facing the south, so that the east and west were on his left and right respectively. The cups were set where they could be taken up and put down most conveniently.
® The fish, as a sacrificial offering and on great occasions, was placed lengthways on the stand. As placed in this paragraph, it was more convenient for the guest. It may be correct that the belly is the best part of a fish in winter, and the back in summer, Let gastronomers and those who are fond of pisciculture decide and explain the point.
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bar on the right and left (to the father of charioteering), and then drank off the cup.
47. Of all viands which were placed on the stands, the offering was put down inside the stand.
A gentleman did not eat the entrails of grain-fed animals }.
A boy® ran, but did not walk quickly with measured steps. When he took up his cup, he knelt in offering (some of the contents) ‘in sacrifice, and then stood up and drank (the rest). Before rinsing a cup, they washed their hands, In separating the lungs of oxen and sheep, they did not cut out the central portion of them*; when viands were served up with sauce, they did not add condiments to it.
In selecting an onion or scallion for a gentleman, they cut off both the root and top.
In selecting an onion or scallion for a gentleman, they cut off both the root and top.
When the head was presented among the viands, the snout was put forward, to be used as the offering.
48. He who set forth the jugs considered the left of the cup-bearer to be the place for the topmost one. The jugs and jars were placed with their spouts towards the arranger.
The drinkers at the ceremonies of washing the head and cupping, in presence of the stand with the divided victims on it, did not kneel. Before the common cup had gone round, they did not taste the viands.
* Dogs (bred to be eaten) and pigs, The reason for not eating their entrails can hardly be stated.
* A waiting-boy.
* That it might easily be taken in hand and put down as an offering of thanksgiving.
80 THE Lf xt. BK. XV.
49. The flesh of oxen, sheep, and fish was cut small, and made into mince. That of elks and deer was pickled; that of the wild pig was hashed :-— these were all sliced, but not cut small. The flesh of the muntjac was alone pickled, and that of fowls and hares, being sliced and cut small. Onions and shalots were sliced, and added to the brine to soften the meat.
50. When the pieces of the divided body were on the stand, in taking one of them to offer and in returning it', they did not kneel. So it was when they made an offering of roast meat. If the offerer, however, were a personator of the dead, he knelt.
51. When a man had his robes on his person, and did not know their names (or the meaning of their names), he was ignorant indeed.
52. If one came late and yet arrived before the torches were lighted, it was announced to him that the guests were all there, and who they were. The same things were intimated to a blind musician by the one who bid him. At a drinking entertainment, when the host carried a light, or bore a torch before them, the guests rise and decline the honour done to them. On this he gave the torch to a torchbearer, who did not move from his place, nor say a word, nor sing *.
53. When one was carrying in water or liquor and food to a superior or elder, the rule was not to
1 The lungs.
*.In the 80 Aw4n we have many accounts of these entertainments. The singing was almost always of a few lines from one of the pieces of the Shih King, expressing a sentiment appropriate to the occasion. The custom was like our after-dinner speeches and toasts.
BK. Xv. sHAo f. 81
breathe on it; and if a question was asked, to turn the mouth on one side.
54. When one conducted sacrifice for another, (and was sending to others the flesh of the victim), the message was, ‘ Herewith (the flesh of) blessing.’ When sending of the flesh of his own sacrifice to a superior man, the party simply announced what it was.
54. When one conducted sacrifice for another, (and was sending to others the flesh of the victim), the message was, ‘ Herewith (the flesh of) blessing.’ When sending of the flesh of his own sacrifice to a superior man, the party simply announced what it was.
If it were flesh of the sacrifice on placing the tablet of the deceased in the temple, or at the close of the first year’s mourning, the fact was announced. The principal mourner spread out the portions, and gave them to his messenger on the south of the eastern steps, bowing twice, and laying his head to the ground as he sent him away; when he returned and reported the execution of his commission, the mourner again bowed twice and laid his head to the ground.
If the sacrifice were a great one, consisting of the three victims, then the portion sent was the left quarter of the ox, divided into nine pieces from the shoulder. If the sacrifice were the smaller, the portion sent was the left quarter, divided into seven pieces. If there were but a single pig, the portion was the left quarter, divided into five portions.
55. When the revenues of a state were at a low ebb, the carriages were not carved and painted ; the buff-coats were not adorned with ribbons and cords; and the dishes were not carved; the superior man did not wear shoes of silk; and horses were not regularly supplied with grain.
(28) G y an Taunt pes
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A te
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BOOK XVI. HSIO At
OR
RECORD ON THE SUBJECT OF EDUCATION}.
1. When a ruler is concerned that his measures should be in accordance with law, and seeks for the (assistance of the) good and upright, this is sufficient to secure him a considerable reputation, but not to move the multitudes.
When he cultivates the society of the worthy, and tries to embody the views of those who are remote (from the court), this is sufficient to move the multitudes, but not to transform the people.
If he wish to transform the people and to perfect their manners and customs, must he not start from the lessons of the school?
2. The jade uncut will not form a vessel for use; and if men do not learn, they do not know the way (in which they should go). On this account the ancient kings, when establishing states and governing the people, made instruction and schools a primary’ object ;—as it is said in the Charge to Yiieh, ‘The thoughts from first to last should be fixed on learning 2’
3. However fine the viands be, if one do not eat, he does not know their taste; however perfect the course may be, if one do not learn it, he does not know its goodness. Therefore when he learns, one
1 See the introductory notice, vol. xxvii, page 32. ? Vol. iii, page 117.
BE. XVI. HSIO xi: 83
However fine the viands be, if one do not eat, he does not know their taste; however perfect the course may be, if one do not learn it, he does not know its goodness. Therefore when he learns, one
1 See the introductory notice, vol. xxvii, page 32. ? Vol. iii, page 117.
BE. XVI. HSIO xi: 83
knows his own deficiencies; when he teaches, he knows the difficulties of learning. After he knows his deficiencies, one is able to turn round and examine himself; after he knows the difficulties, he is able to stimulate himself to effort. Hence it is said, ‘Teaching and learning help each other ;’ as it is said in the Charge to Yiieh, ‘Teaching is the half of learning’
4. According to the system of ancient teaching, for the families of (a hamlet) * there was the village school; for a neighbourhood? there was the hsiang; for the larger districts there was the hsii; and in the capitals there was the college.
5. Every year some entered the college, and every second year there was a comparative examination. In the first year it was seen whether they could read the texts intelligently, and what was the meaning of each; in the third year, whether they were reverently attentive to their work, and what companionship was most pleasant to them; in the fifth year, how they extended their studies and° sought the company of their teachers; in the seventh year, how they could discuss the subjects of their studies and select their friends. They were now said to have made some small attainments. In the ninth year, when they knew the different classes of subjects and had gained a general intelligence, were firmly established and would not fall back, they
1 Vol. iii, page 117.
? The hamlet was supposed to contain twenty-five families; the neighbourhood 500; and the district 2,500. For the four institutions, P. Callery adopts the names of school, college, academy, and university. It would be tedious to give the various explanations of the names Hsiang and Hsi.
G2
84 THE Lf xf. BK. XVI.
For the four institutions, P. Callery adopts the names of school, college, academy, and university. It would be tedious to give the various explanations of the names Hsiang and Hsi.
G2
84 THE Lf xf. BK. XVI.
were said to have made grand attainments. After this the training was sufficient to transform the people, and to change (anything bad in) manners and customs. Those who lived near at hand submitted with delight, and those who were far off thought (of the teaching) with longing desire. Such was the method of the Great learning; as is said in the Record, ‘The little ant continually exercises the art (of amassing)*.’ : 6. At the commencement of the teaching in the Great college, (the masters) in their skin caps presented the offerings of vegetables (to the ancient sages), to show their pupils the principle of reverence for them; and made them sing (at the same time) the: (first) three pieces of the Minor Odes of the Kingdom, as their first lesson in the duties of officers*. When they entered the college, the drum was beaten and the satchels were produced, that they might begin their work reverently. The cane and the thorns? were there to secure in them - ‘a proper awe. It was not till the time for the summer sacrifice * was divined for, that the testing examination was held ;—to give composure to their minds. They were continually under inspection, but not spoken to,—to keep their minds undisturbed. They listened, but they did not ask questions; and _
1 See the note of Callery in loc. The quotation is from some old Record; it is not known what.
* The three pieces were the Lfi Ming, the 3ze M4&u, and the Hwang-hwang Ké hw, the first three pieces in the first decade of the Shih, Part II; showing the harmony and earnestness of officers.
5 Callery calls these ‘la latte et la baguette.’
‘ Khung Ying-t4 thought this was the quinquennial sacrifice. See the Xhien-lung editors on the point.
BK. XVI. HSIO Ki. 85
they could not transgress the order of study (imposed on them). These seven things were the chief regulations in the teaching. As it is expressed in the Record, ‘In all learning, for him who would be an officer the first thing is (the knowledge of) business ; for scholars the first thing is the directing of the mind.’
7. In the system of teaching at the Great college, every season had its appropriate subject; and when the pupils withdrew and gave up their lessons (for the day), they were required to continue their study at home.
8. If a student do not learn (at college) to play in tune, he cannot quietly enjoy his lutes; if he do not learn extensively the figures of poetry, he cannot quietly enjoy the odes; if he do not learn the varieties of dress, he cannot quietly take part in the different ceremonies; if he do not acquire the various accomplishments, he cannot take delight in learning.
g. Therefore a student of talents and virtue pursues his studies, withdrawn in college from all besides, and devoted to their cultivation, or occupied with them when retired from it, and enjoying himself. Having attained to this, he rests quietly in his studies and seeks the company of his teachers; he finds pleasure in his friends, and has all confidence in their course. Although he should be separated from his teachers and helpers, he will not act contrary to the course ;—as it is said in the Charge to Yiieh, ‘ Maintain a reverent humility, and strive to be constantly earnest. In such a case the cultivation will surely come.’
1 Vol. iii, p. 117. But the quotation is a little different from the text of the Shi.
86 THE Li xt. BK. XVI.
10. According to the system of teaching now-adays, (the masters) hum over the tablets which they see before them, multiplying their questions. They speak of the learners’ making rapid advances, and pay no regard to their reposing (in what they have acquired). In what they lay on their learners they are not sincere, nor do they put forth all their ability in teaching them. What they inculcate is contrary to what is right, and the learners are disappointed in what they seek for. In such a case, the latter are distressed by their studies and hate their masters; they are embittered by the difficulties, and do not find any advantage from their (labour). They may seem to finish their work, but they quickly give up its lessons. That no results are seen from their instructions :—is it not owing to these defects ?
11. The rules aimed at in the Great college were the prevention of evil before it was manifested; the timeliness of instruction just when it was required ; the suitability of the lessons in adaptation to circumstances ; and the good influence of example to parties observing one another. It was from these four things that the teaching was so effectual and flourishing.
12. Prohibition of evil after it has been manifested meets with opposition, and is not successful. Instruction given after the time for it is past is done with toil, and carried out with difficulty. The communication of lessons in an undiscriminating manner and without suitability produces injury and disorder, and fails in its object. Learning alone and without friends makes one feel solitary and uncultivated, with but little information. Friendships of festivity
BK, XVI. HSIO Ki. 87
lead to opposition to one’s master. Friendships with the dissolute lead to the neglect of one’s learning. These six things all tend to make teaching vain.
Friendships of festivity
BK, XVI. HSIO Ki. 87
lead to opposition to one’s master. Friendships with the dissolute lead to the neglect of one’s learning. These six things all tend to make teaching vain.
13. When a superior man knows the causes which make instruction successful, and those which make it of no effect, he can become a teacher of others. Thus in his teaching, he leads and does not drag ; he strengthens and does not discourage ; he opens the way but does not conduct to the end (without the learner’s own efforts). Leading and not dragging produces harmony. Strengthening and not discouraging makes attainment easy. Opening the way and not conducting to the end makes (the learner) thoughtful. He who produces such harmony, easy attainment, and thoughtfulness may be pronounced a skilful teacher. . \ 14. Among learners there are four defects with V which the teacher must make himself acquainted. Some err in the multitude of their studies; some, in their fewness ; some, in the feeling of ease (with which they proceed); and some, in the readiness with which they stop. These four defects arise from the difference of their minds. When a teacher knows the character of his mind, he can save the learner from the defect to which he is liable. Teaching should be directed to developa that in which the pupil excels, and correct the defects to which he | is prone.
15. The good singer makes men (able) to continue his notes, and (so) the good teacher makes them able to carry out his ideas. His words are brief, but far-reaching; unpretentious, but deep; with few illustrations, but instructive. In this way he may be said to perpetuate his ideas.
88 THE Lf xt. BK, XVI.
16. When a man of talents and virtue knows the difficulty (on the one hand) and the facility (on the other) in the attainment of learning, and knows (also) the good and the bad qualities (of his pupils), he can vary his methods of teaching. When he can vary his methods of teaching, he can be a master indeed. When he can be a teacher indeed, he can be the Head (of an official department). When he can be such a Head, he can be the-Ruler (of a state). Hence it is from the teacher indeed that one learns to be a ruler, and the choice of a teacher demands the greatest care; as it is said in the Record, ‘ The three kings and the four dynasties were what they were by their teachers.’
When he can be such a Head, he can be the-Ruler (of a state). Hence it is from the teacher indeed that one learns to be a ruler, and the choice of a teacher demands the greatest care; as it is said in the Record, ‘ The three kings and the four dynasties were what they were by their teachers.’
17. In pursuing the course of learning, the difficulty is in securing the proper reverence for the master. When that is done, the course (which he inculcates) is regarded with honour. When that is done, the people know how to respect learning. Thus it is that there are two among his subjects whom the ruler does not treat as subjects. When one is personating (his ancestor), he does not treat him as such, nor does he treat his master as such. According to the rules of the Great college, the master, though communicating anything to the son of Heaven, did not stand with his face to the north. This was the way in which honour was done to him.
18. The skilful learner, while the master seems indifferent, yet makes double the attainments of another, and in the sequel ascribes the merit (to the master). The unskilful learner, while the master is diligent with him, yet makes (only) half the attainments (of the former), and in the sequel is dissatisfied with the master. The skilful questioner is like a workman addressing himself to deal with a hard tree. First he attacks the easy parts, and then the knotty. After a long time, the pupil and master talk together, and the subject is explained. The unskilful questioner takes the opposite course. The master who skilfully waits to be questioned, may be compared to a bell when it is struck. Struck with a small hammer, it gives a small sound. Struck with a great one, it gives a great sound. But let it be struck leisurely and properly, and it gives out all the sound of which it is capable’. He who is not skilful in replying to questions is the opposite of this. This all describes the method of making progress in learning.
19. He who gives (only) the learning supplied by
But let it be struck leisurely and properly, and it gives out all the sound of which it is capable’. He who is not skilful in replying to questions is the opposite of this. This all describes the method of making progress in learning.
19. He who gives (only) the learning supplied by
'' P. Callery makes this sentence refer to the master, and not to the bell, and translates it:—‘ (Mais quelle que soit la nature des questions qu’on lui adresse, le maftre) attend que l’éléve ait fait 4 loisir toutes ses demandes, pour y faire ensuite une réponse compltte. He appends a note on the difficulty of the passage, saying in conclusion that the translation which he has adopted was suggested by a citation of the passage in the Pei-win Yun-fa (fal 3C GA Rf), where there is a different reading of (#4),
‘instruction,’ for (iP). ‘sound.’ I have not been able to find the citation in the great Thesaurus, to which he refers. Yen Yilan does not mention any different reading in his examination of the text
(3 ja eX i, chapter 917); and I do not see any reason for altering the translation which I first made.
rere) THE Lf xi. BK. XVI.
his memory in conversations is not fit to be a master. Is it not necessary that he should hear the ' questions (of his pupils)? Yes, but if they are not able to put questions, he should put subjects before them. If he do so, and then they do not show any knowledge of the subjects, he may let them alone. 20. The son of a good founder is sure to learn how to make a fur-robe. The son of a good maker of bows is sure to learn how to make a sieve. Those who first yoke a (young) horse place it behind, with the carriage going on in front of it. The superior man who examines these cases can by them instruct himself in (the method of) learning 4. 21. The ancients in prosecuting their learning compared different things and traced the analogies between them. The drum has no special relation to any of the musical notes; but without it they cannot be harmonised. Water has no particular relation to any of the five colours; but without it they cannot be displayed?. Learning has no particular relation to any of the five senses ; but without it they cannot be regulated. A teacher has no
' The Xh/ien-lung editors say that this paragraph is intended to show that the course of learning must proceed gradually. So far is clear; but the illustrations employed and their application to the subject in hand are not readily understood. In his fifth Book (towards the end), Lieh-3ze gives the first two illustrations as from an old poem, but rather differently from the text :—‘ The son of a good maker of bows must first learn to make a sieve ; and the’son of a good potter must first learn to make a fur-robe.’ In this form they would more suitably have their place in paragraph 18.
* That is, in painting. The Chinese only paint in water colours. ‘ Water itself,’ says Khung Ying-ta, ‘has no colour, but the paint requires to be laid on with water, in order to its display.’ I cannot follow the text so easily in what it says on the other illustrations.
BK. XVI, HSIO xi. gl
special relation to the five degrees of mourning; but without his help they cannot be worn as they ought to be.
22. A wise man has said, ‘The Great virtue need not be confined to one office; Great power of method need not be restricted to the production of one article; Great truth need not be limited to the confirmation of oaths; Great seasonableness accomplishes all things, and each in its proper time.’ By examining these four cases, we are taught to direct our aims to what is fundamental.
When the three sovereigns sacrificed to the waters, they did so first to the rivers and then to the seas; first to the source and then to its result. This was what is called ‘Paying attention to the root.’
‘BOOK XVII. YO &t
OR
RECORD OF MUSIC’.
Section I,
1. All the modulations of the voice arise from the mind, and the various affections of the mind are produced by things (external to it). .The affections thus produced are manifested in the sounds that are uttered. Changes are produced by the way in which those sounds respond to one another; and those changes constitute what we call the modulations of the voice. The combination of those modulated sounds, so as to give pleasure, and the (direction in harmony with them of the) shields and axes’, and of the plumes and ox-tails?, constitutes what we call music.
2. Music is (thus) the production of the modulations of the voice, and its source is in the affections of the mind as it is influenced by (external) things.
* See the introductory notice, vol. xxvii, pages 32-34.
* There was a pantomimic exhibition of scenes of war, in which the performers brandished shields and axes; and another of scenes of peace, in which they waved plumes and ox-tails. What I have rendered by ‘the modulations of the voice’ is in the text the one Chinese character yin (5), for which Callery gives ‘air musical,’ and which Xang Hsitan ¢ explains as meaning ‘the five full notes of the scale.” See the long note of Callery prefixed to this record, concluding :—‘ La musique Chinoise, telle que l’ont entendue les anciens, avait tous les caractéres d’une représentation théatrale ayant pour but de parler tout a la fois aux yeux, aux oreilles, _ & Pesprit, et au coeur.’
SECT. I. yo xt. 93
I. yo xt. 93
When the mind is moved to sorrow, the sound is sharp and fading away; when it is moved to pleasure, the sound is slow and gentle; when it is moved to joy, the sound is exclamatory and soon disappears ; when it is moved to anger, the sound is coarse and fierce ; when it is moved to reverence, the sound is straightforward, with an indication of humility ; when it is moved to love, the sound is harmonious and soft. These six peculiarities of sound are not natural’; they indicate the impressions produced by (external) things. ; On this account the ancient kings were) watchful in regard to the things by which the mind was affected.
3. And so (they instituted) ceremonies to direct men’s aims aright; music to give harmony to their ° voices ; laws to unify their conduct; and punishments to guard against their tendencies to evil. The end to which ceremonies, music, punishments, and laws conduct is one; they are the instruments by which ' the minds of the people are assimilated, and good | order in government is made to appear. ~ |
4. All modulations of the voice spring from the minds of men. When the feelings are moved within, they are manifested in the sounds of the voice ; and when those sounds are combined so as to form compositions, we have what are called airs. Hence, the airs of an age of good ¢ order indicate composure and enjoymenta: The airs of an age of disorder indicate dissatisfaction and anger, and its government is per-
1 Or, ‘are not the nature;’ that is, the voice does not naturally, when the mind is not moved, from without itself, give such peculiar expressions of feeling. What belongs to man by his nature is simply the faculty of articulate speech, slumbering until he is awakened by his sensations and perceptions.
94 THE Lf xt. BK. XVIT.
versely bad. The airs of a state going to ruin are __ expressive of sorrow and (troubled) thoughts, ’ There is an interaction between the words and airs (of the people) and the character of their government.
5. (The note) kung represents the ruler; shang, the ministers; io, the people; 4ih, affairs; and yi, things. If there be no disorder or irregularity in these five notes, there will be no want of harmony in the state. If kung be irregular, (the air) is wild and broken; the ruler of the state is haughty. If shang be irregular, (the air) is jerky; the offices of the state are decayed. If io be irregular, (the air) expresses anxiety; the people are dissatisfied. If ih be irregular, (the air) expresses sorrow ; affairs are strained. If yii be irregular, (the air) is expressive of impending ruin; the resources (of the state) are exhausted. If the five notes are all irregular, and injuriously interfere with one another, they indicate a state of insolent disorder; and the state where this is the case will at no distant day meet with extinction and ruin}.
If the five notes are all irregular, and injuriously interfere with one another, they indicate a state of insolent disorder; and the state where this is the case will at no distant day meet with extinction and ruin}.
6. The airs of Kang? and Wei were those of an age of disorder, showing that those states were near such an abandoned condition. The airs near the river Pf, at the mulberry forest, were those of a state going to ruin’. The government (of Wei) was in a state of dissipation, and the people were unsettled, calumniating their superiors, and pursuing their private aims beyond the possibility of restraint.
1 On those notes, see Chinese Classics, vol. iii, page 48.
* See Confucian Analects, XV, 10, 6
8 This place was in the state of Wei. See the ridiculous incident which gave rise to this account of the airs in Sze-m& Khien’s monograph on music, pages 13, 14.
SECT. I. yo xf. 95
7. All modulations of sound take their rise from the mind of man; and music is the intercommunication of them in their relations and differences. Hence, even beasts know sound, but not its modulations ; and the masses of the common peoplé know the modulations, but they do not know music. It is only the superior man who can (really) know music.
8. On this account we must discriminate sounds in order to know the airs; the airs in order to know the music ; and the music in order to know (the character of) the government. Having attained to this, we are fully provided with the methods of good order. Hence with him who does not know the sounds we cannot speak about the airs, and with him who does not know the airs we cannot speak about the music. The knowledge of music leads to the subtle springs that underlie the rules of ceremony. He who has apprehended both ceremonies and music may be pronounced to be a possessor of virtue. Virtue means | realisation (in one’s self)". 5
9. Hence the greatest achievements of music were not in the perfection of the airs; the (efficacy) of the ceremonies in the sacrificial offerings was not in the exquisiteness of the flavours. In the lutes for the Khing Mido the strings were of red (boiled) silk, and the holes were wide apart; one lute began, and
? Virtue 29) and getting or realising (#4) have the same name or pronunciation (teh) in Chinese. This concluding sentence, as Callery points out, is only a sort of pun on that common name. And yet ‘virtue’ is the ‘ realisation’ in one’s self ‘of what is good.’ The next paragraph expands the writer’s thought. The greatest achievement of music in its ancient perfection was the softening and refining of the character, and that of the services of the temple was the making men reverent, filial, and brotherly.
i
96 THE Lf xt. BK. XVII.
(only) three others joined it ; there was much melody
_ hot brought out. In the ceremonies of the great
i
96 THE Lf xt. BK. XVII.
(only) three others joined it ; there was much melody
_ hot brought out. In the ceremonies of the great sacrifices, the dark-coloured liquor took precedence, and on the stands were uncooked fish, while the grand soup had no condiments: there was much flavour left undeveloped.
10. Thus we see that the ancient kings, in their institution of ceremonies and music, did not seek how fully they could satisfy the desires of the appetite and of the ears and eyes; but they intended to teach the people to regulate their likings and dislikings, and to bring them back to the normal course of humanity. a’
' itself as he is acted on by external things, and developes the desires incident to his nature. Things come to him more and more, and his knowledge is _, increased. Then arise the manifestations of liking and disliking. When these are not regulated by anything within, and growing knowledge leads more astray without, he cannot come back to himself, and — his Heavenly principle is extinguished. |
12. Now there is no end of the things by which man is affected; and when his likings and dislikings are not subject to regulation (from within), he is changed into the nature of things as they come before him ; that is, he stifles the voice of Heavenly prin- |
_ ciple within, and gives the utmost indulgence to the | desires by which men may be possessed. /On this we have the rebellious and deceitful heart, with licentious and violent disorder. The strong press upon the weak ; the many are cruel to the few; the knowing impose upon the dull; the bold make it bitter for
SEcT. I. yo xt. 97
the timid; the diseased are not nursed; the old and young, orphans and solitaries are neglected :—such is the great disorder that ensues.
13. Therefore the ancient kings, when they instituted their ceremonies and music, regulated them by consideration of the requirements of humanity. By the sackcloth worn for parents, the wailings, and the weepings, they defined the terms of the mourning rites. By the bells, drums, shields, and axes, they introduced harmony into their seasons of rest and enjoyment. By marriage, capping, and the assumption of the hair-pin, they maintained the separation that should exist between male and female. By the archery gatherings in the districts, and the feastings at the meetings of princes, they provided for the correct maintenance of friendly intercourse.
14. Ceremonies afforded the defined expression for the (affections of the) people’s minds; music secured the harmonious utterance of their voices ; the laws of government were designed to promote the performance (of the ceremonies and music); and punishments, to guard against the violation of them. When ceremonies, music, laws, and punishments had everywhere full course, without irregularity or collision, the method of kingly rule was -complete?.
When ceremonies, music, laws, and punishments had everywhere full course, without irregularity or collision, the method of kingly rule was -complete?.
1 With this paragraph ends the first portion of the treatise on music, called Yo Pan ( \, or ‘Fundamental Principles in Music.’ The Xh’ien-lung editors divide it into four chapters :—the first setting forth that music takes its character as good or bad from the mind of man, as affected by what is external to it; the second, that the character of the external things affecting the mind is determined by government as good or bad; the third, that the ceremonies and music of the ancient kings were designed to
(23] Hi a
98 THE Lf xf. BK, XVII.
15. Similarity and union are the aim of music; difference and distinction, that of ceremony. From union comes mutual affection; from difference, mutual respect. , Where music prevails, we find a weak coalescence ; where ceremony prevails, a tendency to separation.| It is the business of the two to blend people’s feelings and give elegance to their outward manifestations.
16. Through the perception of right produced by ceremony, came the degrees of the noble and the mean; through the union of culture arising from music, harmony between high and low. By the exhibition of what was to be liked and what was to be disliked, a distinction was made between the worthy and unworthy. When violence was prevented by punishments, and the worthy were raised to rank, the operation of government was made impartial. Then came benevolence in the love (of the people), and righteousness in the correction (of their errors) ; and in this way good government held its course.
17. Music comes from within, and ceremonies from without. Music, coming from within, produces the stillness (of the mind); ceremonies, coming from without, produce the elegancies (of manner). .. The highest style of music is sure to be distinguished by its ease; the highest style of elegance, by its undemonstrativeness. :
18. Let music attain its full results, and there would be no dissatisfactions (in the mind); let ceremony do so, and there would be no quarrels. When regulate the minds of men in their likings and dislikings; and the fourth, that that regulation was in harmony with the will of Heaven, as indicated in the nature of man,