The Tâo Teh King — Sacred Books of China Part I, SBE Vol. 39 (trans. James Legge, 1891)

where in the Book as a characteristic of the True Man. Nota few critics contend that it was this, and not the T4o of which it isa quality, that Kwang-3ze intended by the ‘ Master’ in the title.

1 Such antithetic statements are startling, but they are common with both Lao-3ze and our author.

* The seven men mentioned here are all adduced, I must suppose, as instances of good and worthy men, but still inferior to the True Man. Of HG Pf-Aieh all that we are told is that he was ‘ an ancient worthy.’ One account of Wi Kwang is that he was of the time of Hwang-Ti, with ears seven inches long; another, that he

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4. The True men of old presented the aspect of judging others aright, but without being partisans ; of feeling their own insufficiency, but being without flattery or cringing. Their peculiarities were natural to them, but they were not obstinately attached to them; their humility was evident, but there was nothing of unreality or display about it. Their placidity and satisfaction had the appearance of joy; their every movement seemed to be a necessity to them. Their accumulated attractiveness drew men’s looks to them; their blandness fixed men’s attachment to their virtue. They seemed to accommodate themselves to the (manners of their age), but with a certain severity; their haughty indifference was beyond its control. Unceasing seemed their endeavours to keep (their mouths) shut ; when they looked down, they had forgotten what they wished to say.

They considered punishments to be the substance (of government, and they never incurred it); ceremonies to be its supporting wings (and they always observed them); wisdom (to indicate) the time (for action, and they always selected it); and virtue to be accordance (with others), and they were all-accordant. Considering punishments to be the substance (of government), yet their generosity appeared in the (manner of their) infliction of death. Considering ceremonies to be its supporting wings, they pursued was of the time of Thang, of the Shang dynasty. Po-f and Shak/i are known to us from the Analects; and also the count of hi, whose name, it is said, was Hsii-yii. I can find nothing about Ki Tha ;—his name in 3id0 Hung’s text is ty ih, VE. Shin-th Ti was of the Yin dynasty, a contemporary of Thang. He drowned himself in the Ho. Most of these are referred to in other places.

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by means of them their course in the world. Considering wisdom to indicate the time (for action), they felt it necessary to employ it in (the direction of) affairs. Considering virtue to be accordance (with others), they sought to ascend its height along with all who had feet (to climb it). (Such were they), and yet men really thought that they did what they did by earnest effort}.

Considering virtue to be accordance (with others), they sought to ascend its height along with all who had feet (to climb it). (Such were they), and yet men really thought that they did what they did by earnest effort}.

5. In this way they were one and the same in all their likings and dislikings. Where they liked, they were the same; where they did not like, they were the same. In the former case where they liked, they were fellow-workers with the Heavenly (in them) ; in the latter where they disliked, they were coworkers with the Human in them. The one of these elements (in their nature) did not overcome the other. Such were those who are called the True men.

Death and life are ordained, just as we have the constant succession of night and day ;—in both cases from Heaven. Men have no power to do anything in reference to them ;—such is the constitution of things*. There are those who specially regard Heaven® as their father, and they still love It (distant as It is)?;—how much more should they love

1 All this paragraph is taken as illustrative of the True man’s freedom from thought or purpose in his course..

2 See note 3 on par. I, p. 236.

8 Love is due to a parent, and so such persons should love Heaven. There is in the text here, I think, an unconscious reference to the earliest time, before the views of the earliest Chinese diverged to Theism and Taoism. We cannot translate the &} here.

[39] R

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That which stands out (Superior and Alone)'! Some specially regard their ruler as superior to themselves, and will give their bodies to die for him ;— how much more should they do so for That which is their true (Ruler)!! When the springs are dried up, the fishes collect together on the land. Than that they should moisten one another there by the damp about them, and keep one another wet by their slime, it would be better for them to forget one another in the rivers and lakes*% And when men praise Y4o and condemn Kieh, it would be better to forget them both, and seek the renovation of the Tao.

6. There is the great Mass (of nature) ;—I find the support of my body on it; my life is spent in toil on it; my old age seeks ease on it; at death I find rest in it;—what makes my life a good makes my death also a good®. If you hide awaya boat in the ravine of a hill, and hide away the hill in a lake, you will say that (the boat) is secure; but at midnight there shall come a strong man and carry it off on his back, while you in the dark know nothing about it. You may hide away anything, whether small or great, in the most suitable place, and yet it shall disappear from it. But if you could hide the world in the world‘, so that there was nowhere to which it could be removed, this would be the grand reality of the

1 The great and most honoured Master,—the Tao.

? This sentence contrasts the cramping effect on the mind of Confucianism with the freedom given by the doctrine of the Tao.

? This sentence contrasts the cramping effect on the mind of Confucianism with the freedom given by the doctrine of the Tao.

’ The Tao does this. The whole paragraph is an amplification of the view given in the preceding note.

‘ The Tao cannot be taken away. It is with its possessor, an
‘ ever-during thing.’

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ever-during Thing!. When the body of man comes from its special mould ?, there is even then occasion for joy; but this body undergoes a myriad transformations, and does not immediately reach its perfection ;—does it not thus afford occasion for joys incalculable ? Therefore the sagely man enjoys himself in that from which there is no possibility of separation, and by which all things are preserved. He considers early death or old age, his beginning and his ending, all to be good, and in this other men imitate him;—how much more will they do so in regard to That Itself on which all things depend, and from which every transformation arises !

7. This is the TA4o;—there is in It emotion and sincerity, but It does nothing and has no bodily form*. It may be handed down (by the teacher), but may not be received (by his scholars). It may be apprehended (by the mind), but It cannot be seen. It has Its root and ground (of existence) in Itself. Before there were heaven and earth, from of old, there It was, securely existing. From It came the mysterious existences of spirits, from It the mysterious existence of God‘. It produced heaven ; It produced earth. It was before the Thai-Ai5, and

1 See p. 242, note 4.

® Adopting the reading of Rif for aL, supplied by Hwdi-nan 3zc.

5 Our author has done with ‘ the True Man,’ and now brings in the T4o itself as his subject. Compare the predicates of It here with Bk. II, par. 2. But there are other, and perhaps higher, things said of it here.

4 Men at a very early time came to believe in the existence of their spirits after death, and in the existence of a Supreme Ruler or God. It was to the Tao that those concepts were owing.

5 The primal ether out of which all things were fashioned by the interaction of the Yin and Yang. This was something like the

R 2

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yet could not be considered high!; It was below all space, and yet could not be considered deep. It was produced before heaven and earth, and yet could not be considered to have existed long!; It was older than the highest antiquity, and yet could not be considered old 1.

BK. VI.

yet could not be considered high!; It was below all space, and yet could not be considered deep. It was produced before heaven and earth, and yet could not be considered to have existed long!; It was older than the highest antiquity, and yet could not be considered old 1.

Shih-wei got It?, and by It adjusted heaven and earth. Fa-hst got It, and by It penetrated to the mystery of the maternity of the primary matter. The Wei-tau * got It, and from all antiquity has made no eccentric movement. The Sun and Moon got It, and from all antiquity have not intermitted (their bright shining). Khan-pei got It, and by It became lord of Khwan-lun‘, Fang-i5 got It, and by It enjoyed himself in the Great River. Aien W4® got It, and by It dwelt on mount Thai. Hwang-Ti’ got It, and by It ascended the cloudy sky. A wan-hsii® current idea of protoplasm; but while protoplasm lies down in the lower parts of the earth, the Thai-Af was imagined to be in the higher regions of space.

' The T4o is independent both of space and time.

® A prehistoric sovereign.

° A name for the constellation of the Great Bear.

* Name of the spirit of the Khwan-lun mountains in Thibet, the fairy-land of Taoist writers, very much in Taoism what mount Suméru is in Buddhism.

> The spirit presiding over the Yellow River ;—see Mayers’s Manual, pp. 54, 55-

* Appears here as the spirit of mount Thai, the great eastern mountain ; we met with him in I, 5, but simply as one of Kwang- 3ze’s fictitious personages.

7 Appears before in Bk. II; the first of Sze-ma Khien’s ‘ Five Tis ;’ no doubt a very early sovereign, to whom many important discoveries and inventions are ascribed ; is placed by many at the head of Taoism itself.

8 The second of the ‘Five Tis;’ a grandson of Hwang-Ti. I do not know what to say of his ‘ Dark Palace.’

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got It, and by It dwelt in the Dark Palace. Yii-4/iang got It, and by It was set on the North Pole. Hsi Wang-md? got It, and by It had her seat in (the palace of) Shao-kwang. No one knows Its beginning ; no one knows Its end. Phang 30 got It, and lived on from the time of the lord of Yii to that of the Five Chiefs*. Fa Yiieh * got It, and by It became chief minister to Wd-ting *, (who thus) in a trice became master of the kingdom. (After his death), Fa Yiieh mounted to the eastern portion of the Milky Way, where, riding on Sagittarius and Scorpio, he took his place among the stars.

8. Nan-po 3ze-khwei® asked Nii Yii®, saying, ‘You are old, Sir, while your complexion is like that of a child;—how is it so?’ The reply was, ‘I have become acquainted with the T4o. The other said, ‘Can I learn the Tao?’ Nii Yii said, ‘No. How can_you? You, Sir, are not the man to do so. There was Pt-liang {7 who had the abilities of a sagely man, but not the T4o, while I had the Tao, but not the abilities. I wished, however, to teach him, if, peradventure, he might

The other said, ‘Can I learn the Tao?’ Nii Yii said, ‘No. How can_you? You, Sir, are not the man to do so. There was Pt-liang {7 who had the abilities of a sagely man, but not the T4o, while I had the Tao, but not the abilities. I wished, however, to teach him, if, peradventure, he might

1 The Spirit of the Northern regions, with a man’s face, and a bird’s body, &c.

? A queen of the Genii on mount Khwan-lun. See Mayers’s Manual, pp. 178, 179.

5 Phang 3f has been before us in Bk. I. Shun is intended by
‘the Lord of Yi.’ The five Chiefs ;—see Mencius, VI, ii, 7.

* See the Sh, IV, viii; but we have nothing there of course about the Milky Way and the stars——This passage certainly lessens our confidence in Kwang-3ze’s statements.

5 Perhaps the same as Nan-po 3ze-AAi in Bk. IV, par. 7.

® Must have been a great Taoist. Nothing more can be said of him or her.

™ Only mentioned here,

SS Tr aoe - -—- -=— - 2+ <-—— -@eependiieaEe-—— -p. 246 become the sagely man indeed. If he should not do so, it was easy (I thought) for one possessing the T4o of the sagely man to communicate it to another possessing his abilities. Accordingly, I proceeded to do so, but with deliberation’. After three days, he was able to banish from his mind all worldly (matters). This accomplished, I continued my intercourse with him in the same way; and in seven days he was able to banish from his mind all thought of men and things. This accomplished, and my instructions continued, after nine days, he was able to count his life as foreign to himself. This accomplished, his mind was afterwards clear as the morning; and after this he was able to see his own individuality. That individuality perceived, he was able to banish all thought of Past or Present. Freed from this, he was able to penetrate to (the truth that there is no difference between) life and death ;—(how) the destruction of life is not dying, and the communication of other life is not living. (The TAéo) is a thing which accompanies all other things and meets them, which is present when they are overthrown and when they obtain their completion. Its name is Tranquillity amid all Disturbances, meaning that such Disturbances lead to Its Perfection *’

‘And how did you, being alone (without any teacher), learn all this?’ ‘I learned it,’ was the reply, ‘from the son of Fa-mo‘; he learned it from

1 So the F is explained.

® Standing by himself, as it were face to face with the Tao.

3 Amid all changes, in life and death, the possessor of the Tao has peace.

* Meaning writings ; literally, ‘the son of the assisting pigment.

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the grandson of Lo-sung; he learned it from Shanming; he learned it from Nieh-hsii; he, from Hsii-yi; he, from Wd-do; he, from Hsiian-ming ; he, from 3han-lido; and he learned it from {-shih.’

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the grandson of Lo-sung; he learned it from Shanming; he learned it from Nieh-hsii; he, from Hsii-yi; he, from Wd-do; he, from Hsiian-ming ; he, from 3han-lido; and he learned it from {-shih.’

9. 3ze-sze1, 3ze-yii!, 3ze-li!, and 3ze-ld4i!, these four men, were talking together, when some one said, ‘Who can suppose the head to be made from nothing, the spine from life, and the rump-bone from death? Who knows how death and birth, living on and disappearing, compose the one body ? —I would be friends with him?’ The four men looked at one another and laughed, but no one seized with his mind the drift of the questions. All, however, were friends together.

Not long after 3ze-yii fell ill, and 3ze-sze went to inquire for him. ‘How great, said (the sufferer), ‘is the Creator?! That He should have made me the deformed object that Iam!’ He was a crooked hunchback ; his five viscera were squeezed into the

We are not to suppose that by this and the other names that follow individuals are intended. Awang-3ze seems to have wished to give, in his own fashion, some notion of the genesis of the idea of the Tao from the first speculations about the origin of things.

1 We need not suppose that these are the names of real men.
They are brought on the stage by our author to serve his purpose.
Hwéai-nan makes the name of the first to have been 3ze-shui

(F 7k).

2 Compare the same representation in Bk. XXIII, par. ro. Ka Teh-Aih says on it here, ‘The head, the spine, the rump-bone mean simply the head and tail, the beginning and end. All things begin from nothing and end in nothing. Their birth and their death are only the creations of our thought, the going and coming of the primary ether. When we have penetrated to the non-reality of life and death, what remains of the body of so many feet?’

8 The ‘ Creator’ or ‘ Maker’ (E Hy %) is the Tao.

Cnc ee woe = = ew ar e

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When we have penetrated to the non-reality of life and death, what remains of the body of so many feet?’

8 The ‘ Creator’ or ‘ Maker’ (E Hy %) is the Tao.

Cnc ee woe = = ew ar ep. 248 upper part of his body; his chin bent over his navel; his shoulder was higher than his crown; on his crown was an ulcer pointing to the sky; his breath came and went in gasps!:—yet he was easy in his mind, and made no trouble of his condition. He limped to a well, looked at himself in it, and said, ‘Alas that the Creator should have made me the deformed object that I am!’ 3ze said, ‘Do you dislike your condition?’ He replied, ‘No, why should I dislike it? If He were to transform my left arm into a cock, I should be watching with it the time of the night; if He were to transform my right arm into a cross-bow, I should then be looking for a hsido to (bring down and) roast; if He were to transform my rump-bone into a wheel, and my spirit into a horse, I should then be mounting it, and would not change it for another steed. Moreover, when we have got (what we are to do), there is the time (of life) in which to do it; when we lose that (at death), submission (is what is required). When we rest in what the time requires, and manifest that submission, neither joy nor sorrow can find entrance (to the mind)* This would be what the ancients called loosing the cord by which (the life) is suspended. But one hung up cannot loose himself ;—he is held fast by his bonds*. And that creatures cannot overcome

1 Compare this description of 3ze-yii’s deformity with that of the poor Shf, in IV, 8.

2 Such is the submission to one’s lot produced by the teaching of TAoism.

8 Compare the same phraseology in III, par. 4, near the end. In correcting Mr. Balfour’s mistranslation of the text, Mr. Giles himself falls into a mistranslation through not observing that the fh

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Heaven (the inevitable) is a long-acknowledged fact ;—why should I hate my condition ?’

4, near the end. In correcting Mr. Balfour’s mistranslation of the text, Mr. Giles himself falls into a mistranslation through not observing that the fh

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Heaven (the inevitable) is a long-acknowledged fact ;—why should I hate my condition ?’

10. Before long 3ze-lai fell ill, and lay gasping at the point of death, while his wife and children stood around him wailing’. 3ze-li went to ask for him, and said to them, ‘Hush! Get out of the way! Do not disturb him as he is passing through his change.’ Then, leaning against the door, he said (to the dying man), ‘Great indeed is the Creator! What will He now make you to become? Where will He take you to? Will He make you the liver of a rat, or the arm of an insect??’ 3ze-lai replied, ‘Wherever a parent tells a son to go, east, west, south, or north, he simply follows the command. The Yin and Yang are more to | a man than his parents are. If they are hastening my death, and I do not quietly submit to them, I shall be obstinate and rebellious. There is the great Mass (of nature) ;—I find the support of my | body in it; my life is spent in toil on it; my old age seeks ease on it; at death I find rest on it :— what has made my life a good will make my death also a good.

‘Here now is a great founder, casting his metal.
If the metal were to leap up (in the pot), and say,
“1 must be made into a (sword like the) Mo-yeh 3,”

is passive, having the IN that precedes as its subject (observe the ' force of the th, after f% in the best editions), and not active, or governing the hing that follows.

1 Compare the account of the scene at Lao-jze’s death, in III, par. 4.

? Here comes in the belief in transformation.

° The name of a famous sword, made for Ho-lii, the king ofp. 250 the great founder would be sure to regard it as uncanny. So, again, when a form is being fashioned in the mould of the womb, if it were to say, “I must become a man; I must become a man,” the Creator would be sure to regard it as uncanny. When we once understand that heaven and earth are a great melting-pot, and the Creator a great founder, where can we have to go to that shall not be right for us? We are born as from a quiet sleep, and we die to a calm awaking.’

II. 3ze-sang Hii}, Mang 3ze-fan?, and 3ze-k/in Kang', these three men, were friends together. (One of them said), ‘Who can associate together without any (thought of) such association, or act together without any (evidence of) such co-operation? Who can mount up into the sky and enjoy himself amidst the mists, disporting beyond the utmost limits (of things) %, and forgetting all others as if this were living, and would have no end?’ The three men looked at one another and laughed, not perceiving the drift of the questions; and they continued to associate together as friends.

Suddenly, after a time’, 3ze-sang Hii died. Before he was buried, Confucius heard of the event, and

—--e we

Suddenly, after a time’, 3ze-sang Hii died. Before he was buried, Confucius heard of the event, and

—--e we

Wai (8. c. 514-494). See the account of the forging of it in the

He J ¥ | ia ch. 74. The mention of it would seem to indicate that 3ze-lai and the other three men were of the time of

Confucius.

1 These three men were undoubtedly of the time of Confucius, and some would identify them with the 3ze-sang Po-3ze of Ana. VI, 1, Mang Aih-fan of VI, 13, and the Lao of IX, vi, 4. This is very unlikely. They were T4oists.

2 Or, ‘ without end.’

8 Or, ‘Some time went by silently, and.’

(eaep. 251 sent 3ze-kung to go and see if he could render any assistance. One of the survivors had composed a ditty, and the other was playing on his lute. Then they sang together in unison,

‘Ah! come, Sang Hi! ah! come, Sang Ha!

Your being true you've got again,

While we, as men, still here remain
Ohone?!’

3ze-kung hastened forward to them, and said, ‘I venture to ask whether it be according to the rules to be singing thus in the presence of the corpse?’ The two men looked at each other, and laughed, saying, ‘What does this man know about the idea that underlies (our) rules?’ 3ze-kung returned to Confucius, and reported to him, saying, ‘What sort of men are those? They had made none of the usual preparations?, and treated the body as a thing foreign to them. They were singing in the presence of the corpse, and there was no change in their countenances. I cannot describe them ;—what sort of men are they?’ Confucius replied, ‘Those men occupy and enjoy themselves in what is outside the (common) ways (of the world), while I occupy and enjoy myself in what lies within those ways. There is no common ground for those of such different ways; and when I sent you to condole with those men, I was acting stupidly. They, moreover, make man to be the fellow of the

1 In accordance with the ancient ‘and modern practice in China of calling the dead back. But these were doing so in a song to the lute.

Or, ‘they do not regulate their doings (in the usual way).’

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They, moreover, make man to be the fellow of the

1 In accordance with the ancient ‘and modern practice in China of calling the dead back. But these were doing so in a song to the lute.

Or, ‘they do not regulate their doings (in the usual way).’

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Creator, and seek their enjoyment in the formless condition of heaven and earth. They consider life to be an appendage attached, an excrescence. annexed to them, and death to be a separation of the appendage and a dispersion of the contents of the excrescence. With these views, how should they know wherein death and life are to be found, or what is first and what is last? They borrow different substances, and pretend that the common form of the body is composed of them!. They dismiss the thought of (its inward constituents like) the liver and gall, and (its outward constituents), the ears and eyes. Again and again they end and they begin, having no knowledge of first principles. They occupy themselves ignorantly and vaguely with what (they say) lies outside the dust and dirt (of the world), and seek their enjoyment in the business of doing nothing. How should they confusedly address themselves to the ceremonies practised by the common people, and exhibit themselves as doing so to the ears and eyes of the multitude ?’

3ze-kung said, ‘Yes, but why do you, Master, act according to the (common) ways (of the world) ?’ The reply was, ‘I am in this under the condemning sentence of Heaven”. Nevertheless, I will share

1 The idea that the body is composed of the elements of earth, wind or air, fire, and water.

2 A strange description of himself by the sage. Literally, ‘Iam (one of) the people killed and exposed to public view by Heaven ;’ referring, perhaps, to the description of a living man as ‘ suspended by a string from God.’ Confucius was content to accept his life, and used it in pursuing the path of duty, according to his conception of it, without aiming at the transcendental method of the TAoists. I can attach no other or better meaning to the expression.

i I a iyp. 253 with you (what I have attained to).’ 3ze-kung rejoined, ‘I venture to ask the method which you pursue ;’ and Confucius said, ‘Fishes breed and grow in the water; man developes in the Tao. Growing in the water, the fishes cleave the pools, and their nourishment is supplied to them. Developing in the TA4o, men do nothing, and the enjoyment of their life is secured. Hence it is said, “ Fishes forget one another in the rivers and lakes; men forget one another in the arts of the Tdo.”’

3ze-kung said, ‘I venture to ask about the man who stands aloof from others}. The reply was, ‘He stands aloof from other men, but he is in accord with Heaven! Hence it is said, “The small man of Heaven is the superior man among men; the superior man among men is the small man of Heaven ?!”’

The reply was, ‘He stands aloof from other men, but he is in accord with Heaven! Hence it is said, “The small man of Heaven is the superior man among men; the superior man among men is the small man of Heaven ?!”’

12. Yen Hui asked Xung-ni, saying, ‘When the mother of Mang-sun 3hAi ® died, in all his wailing for her he did not shed a tear; in the core of his heart he felt no distress ; during all the mourning rites, he exhibited no sorrow. Without these three things, he (was considered to have) discharged his mourning’well ;—is it that in the state of LQ one who has not the reality may yet get the reputation of having it? I think the matter very strange. ung-ni

} Misled by the text of Hstiang Ying, Mr. Balfour here reads

Nay instead of Bay -

? Here, however, he aptly compares with the language of Christ in Matthew vii. 28—wang-jze seems to make Confucius praise the system of Taoism as better than his own!

5 Must have been a member of the Mang or Mang-sun family of Lf, to a branch of which Mencius belonged.

p. 254

said, ‘That Mang-sun carried out (his views) to the utmost. He was advanced in knowledge; but (in this case) it was not possible for him to appear to be negligent (in his ceremonial observances)', but he succeeded in being really so to himself. Mang-sun does not know either what purposes life serves, or what death serves; he does not know which should be first sought, and which last *. If he is to be transformed into something else, he will simply await the transformation which he does not yet know. This is all he does. And moreover, when one is about to undergo his change, how does he know that it has not taken place? And when he is not about to undergo his change, how does he know that it has taken place*?? Take the case of me and you :—are we in a dream from which we have not begun to awake‘?

‘Moreover, M&ng-sun presented in his body the appearance of being agitated, but in his mind he was conscious of no loss. The death was to him like the issuing from one’s dwelling at dawn, and no (more terrible) reality. He was more awake than others were. When they wailed, he also wailed, having in himself the reason why he did so. And we all have our individuality which makes us what we are as compared together; but how do we know that we

1 The people set such store by the mourning rites, that Mangsun felt he must present the appearance of observing them. This would seem to show that Taoism arose after the earlier views of the Chinese.

? I adopt here, with many of the critics, the reading of Bh instead of the more common Ek.

° This is to me very obscure.

* Are such dreams possible? See what I have said on II, par. 9.

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? I adopt here, with many of the critics, the reading of Bh instead of the more common Ek.

° This is to me very obscure.

* Are such dreams possible? See what I have said on II, par. 9.

p. 255

determine in any case correctly that individuality ? Moreover you dream that you are a bird, and seem to be soaring to the sky; or that you are a fish, and seem to be diving in the deep. But you do not know whether we that are now speaking are awake orinadream'. It is not the meeting with what is pleasurable that produces the smile; it is not the smile suddenly produced that produces the arrangement (of the person). When one rests in what has been arranged, and puts away all thought of the transformation, he is in unity with the mysterious Heaven.’

13. [-+ 3ze? having gone to see Hsii Y4, the latter said to him, ‘What benefit have you received from Y4o?’ The reply was, ‘Y4o says to me, You must yourself labour at benevolence and righteousness, and be able to tell clearly which is right and which wrong (in conflicting statements).’ Hsii Ya rejoined, ‘Why then have you come to me? Since Y4o has put on you the brand of his benevolence and righteousness, and cut off your nose with his right and wrong’, how will you be able to wander in the way of aimless enjoyment, of unregulated contemplation, and the ever-changing forms (of dispute) ?’ f-r 3ze said, ‘That may be; but I should

} This also is obscure; but Confucius is again made to praise the Taoistic system.

2 f-r is said by Li f to have been ‘a worthy scholar ;’ but f-r is an old name for the swallow, and there is a legend of a being of this name appearing to king Md, and then flying away as a swallow ;—see the Khang-hst Thesaurus under itn: The personage is éntirely fabulous.

8 Dismembered or disfigured you.

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like to skirt along its hedges.’ ‘ But,’ said the other, ‘it cannot be. Eyes without pupils can see nothing of the beauty of the eyebrows, eyes, and other features; the blind have nothing to do with the green, yellow, and variegated colours of the sacrificial robes. i-r 3ze rejoined, ‘Yet, when Wakwang) lost his beauty, Aii-liang’ his strength, and Hwang-Ti his wisdom, they all (recovered them) ? under the moulding (of your system) ;—how do you know that the Maker will not obliterate the marks of my branding, and supply my dismemberment, so that, again perfect in my form, I may follow you as my teacher?’ Hsii YQ said, ‘Ah! that cannot yet be known. I will tell you the rudiments. O my Master! O my Master! He gives to all things their blended qualities, and does not count it any righteousness ; His favours reach to all generations, and He does not count it any benevolence ; He is more ancient than the highest antiquity, and does not count Himself old; He overspreads heaven and supports the earth; He carves and fashions all bodily forms, and does not consider it any act of skill ;—this is He in whom I find my enjoyment.’

14. Yen Hui said, ‘I am making progress.’ AKungni replied, ‘What do you mean?’ ‘I have ceased to think of benevolence and righteousness,’ was the reply. ‘Very well; but that is not enough.’

Another day, Hui again saw Kung-nt, and said,
‘I am making progress’. ‘What do you mean?’

* Names of parties, of whom we know nothing. It is implied, we must suppose, that they had suffered as is said by their own inadvertence.

2 We must suppose that they had done so.

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‘I have lost all thought of ceremonies and music.’
‘Very well, but that is not enough.’

A third day, Hui again saw (the Master), and said, ‘I am making progress.’ ‘What do you mean ?’ ‘I sit and forget everything?’ ung-ni changed countenance, and said, ‘What do you mean by saying that you sit and forget (everything) ?’ Yen Hui replied, ‘My connexion with the body and its parts is dissolved; my perceptive organs are discarded. Thus leaving my material form, and bidding farewell to my knowledge, I am become one with the Great Pervader*. This I call sitting and forgetting all things.’ Aung-ni said, ‘One (with that Pervader), you are free from all likings; so transformed, you are become impermanent. You have, indeed, become superior to me! I must ask leave to follow in your steps,’

15. 3ze-yiit and 3ze-sang‘ were friends. (Once), when it had rained continuously for ten days, 3ze-yii said, ‘I fear that 3ze-sang may be in distress.’ So he wrapped up some rice, and went to give it to him to eat. When he came to 3ze-sang’s door, there issued from it sounds between singing and wailing ;

1 «I sit and forget ;’—generally thus supplemented (49 fr AS

5). Hui proceeds to set forth the meaning he himself attached to the phrase.

* Another denomination, I think, of the Tao. The Fe 3H is also explained as meaning, ‘the great void in which there is no

obstruction (Ft ip <2 SHE FH).”

8 Here is another testimony, adduced by our author, of Confucius’s appreciation of T4oism ; to which the sage would, no doubt, have taken exception.

* Two of the men in pars. 9, fo.

[39] Ssp. 258 a lute was struck, and there came the words, ‘O Father! O Mother! O Heaven! O Men!’ The voice could not sustain itself, and the line was hurriedly pronounced. 3ze-yii entered and said, ‘ Why are you singing, Sir, this line of poetry in such a way?’ The other replied, ‘I was thinking, and thinking in vain, how it was that I was brought to such extremity. Would my parents have wished me to be so poor? Heaven overspreads all without any partial feeling, and so does Earth sustain all ;—would Heaven and Earth make me so poor with any unkindly feeling? I was trying to find out who had done it, and I could not do so. But here I am in this extremity !—it is what was appointed for me?!’

* Here is the highest issue of Taoism ;—unquestioning submission to what is beyond our knowledge and control.

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BOOK VII.

But here I am in this extremity !—it is what was appointed for me?!’

* Here is the highest issue of Taoism ;—unquestioning submission to what is beyond our knowledge and control.

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BOOK VII.

Part I. Section VII.

Ying Ti Wang? or ‘The Normal Course for
Rulers and Kings.’

1. Nieh Khiieh? put four questions to Wang f?, not one of which did he know (how to answer). On this Nieh A’iieh leaped up, and in great delight walked away and informed Pht-t-jze 3 of it, who said to him, ‘Do you (only) now know it?’ He of the line of Yii‘ was not equal to him of the line of Thai >. He of Yii still kept in himself (the idea of) benevolence by which to constrain (the submission of) men; and he did win men, but he had not begun to proceed by what did not belong to him as a man. He of the line of Thai would sleep tranquilly, and awake in contented simplicity. He would consider himself now (merely) as a horse, and now (merely) as an ox ®, His knowledge was real and untroubled

1 See pp. 136-138.

2 See p. 190, note 5.

8 An ancient T4oist, of the time of Shun. So, Hwang-fa Mi, who adds that Shun served him as his master when he was eight years old. I suppose the name indicates that his clothes were made of rushes.

* Shun. See p. 245, note 3.

5 An ancient sovereign, earlier, no doubt, than Fa-hst; but nothing is known of him.

6 He thought nothing about his being, as a man, superior to the lower creatures. Shun in governing employed his acquired knowledge ; Thai had not begun to do so.

$2p. 260 by doubts; and his virtue was very true :—he had not begun to proceed by what belonged to him as a man.

2. Kien Wt! went to see the mad (recluse), Khieh-yii?, who said to him, ‘What did Zah-éung Shih? tell you ?? The reply was, ‘ He told me that when rulers gave forth their regulations according to their own views and enacted righteous measures, no one would venture not to obey them, and all would be transformed.’ ‘ieh-yii said, ‘That is but the hypocrisy of virtue. For the right ordering of the world it would be like trying to wade through the sea and dig through the Ho, or employing a musquito to carry a mountain on its back. And when a sage is governing, does he govern men’s outward actions? He is (himself) correct, and so (his government) goes on ;—-this is the simple and certain way by which he secures the success of his affairs. Think of the bird which flies high, to avoid being hurt by the dart on the string of the archer, and the little mouse which makes its hole deep under Shankhit* to avoid the danger of being smoked or dug out ;—are (rulers) less knowing than these two little creatures ?’

3. Thien K&n°, rambling on the south of (mount)
Yin®, came to the neighbourhood of the Lido-water.

Thien K&n°, rambling on the south of (mount)
Yin®, came to the neighbourhood of the Lido-water.

See p. 170, note 2.
See p. 170, note 3.
A name ;—‘ a worthy,’ it is said.
Name of some hill, or height.
A name (‘ Root of the sky’), but probably mythical. There is
a star so called.
5 Probably the name of a mountain, though this meaning of
Yin is not given in the dictionary.

1
2
3
4
5

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Happening there to meet with the man whose name is not known’, he put a question to him, saying, ‘I beg to ask what should be done? in order to (carry on) the government of the world.’ - The nameless man said, ‘Go away; you are arude borderer. Why do you put to me a question for which you are unprepared 3 ? I would simply play the part of the Maker of (all) things*. When wearied, I would mount on the bird of the light and empty air, proceed beyond the six cardinal points, and wander in the region of nonentity, to dwell in the wilderness of desert space. What method have you, moreover, for the government of the world that you (thus) agitate my mind ?’ (Thien Kan), however, again asked the question, and the nameless man said, ‘ Let your mind find its enjoyment in pure simplicity; blend yourself with (the primary) ether in idle indifference; allow all things to take their natural course; and admit no personal or selfish consideration :—do this and the world will be governed.’

4. Yang 3ze-4ii>, having an interview with Lao Tan, said to him, ‘ Here is a man, alert and vigorous

1 Or, ‘a nameless man.’ We cannot tell whether Awang-jze had any particular Being, so named, in view or not.

? The objectionable point in the question is the supposition that ‘doing’ was necessary in the case.

8 Or, ‘I am unprepared.’ But as Thien K&n repeats the question, it seems better to supply the second pronoun, He had thought on the subject.

4 See the same phraseology in VI, par. 11. What follows is merely our author’s way of describing the non-action of the Tao.

5 The Yang Kf, whom Mencius attacked so fiercely. He was, perhaps, a contemporary and disciple of Lao-3ze.

= ee coca

| cel ae ——— SSS |p. 262 in responding to all matters1, clearsighted and widely intelligent, and an unwearied student of the T 40 ;—can he be compared to one of the intelligent kings ?’ The reply was, ‘Such a man is to one of the intelligent kings but as the bustling underling of a court who toils his body and distresses his mind with his various contrivances?. And moreover, it is the beauty of the skins of the tiger and leopard which makes men hunt them; the agility of the monkey, or (the sagacity of) the dog that catches the yak, which make men lead them in strings; but can one similarly endowed be compared to the intelligent kings ?’

And moreover, it is the beauty of the skins of the tiger and leopard which makes men hunt them; the agility of the monkey, or (the sagacity of) the dog that catches the yak, which make men lead them in strings; but can one similarly endowed be compared to the intelligent kings ?’

Yang 3ze-kii looked discomposed and said, ‘I venture to ask you what the government of the intelligent kings is.’ Lao Tan replied, ‘In the governing of the intelligent kings, their services overspread all under the sky, but they did not seem to consider it as proceeding from themselves; their transforming influence reached to all things, but the people did not refer it to them with hope. No one could tell the name of their agency, but they made men and things be joyful in themselves. Where they took their stand could not be fathomed, and they found their enjoyment in (the realm of) nonentity.’

5. In Kang there was a mysterious wizard? called

1 The ¥BR may be taken as = JaJ, in which case we must understand a 14 as its object; or as = HE ‘an echo,’ indicating the quickness of the man’s response to things.

* Compare the language of Lao Tan, in Bk. XII, par. 8, near the beginning.

8 AL is generally feminine, meaning ‘a witch.’ We must take

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Ki-hsien, He knew all about the deaths and births of men, their preservation and ruin, their misery and happiness, and whether their lives would be long or short, foretelling the year, the month, the decade and the day like a spirit. When the people of Kang saw him, they all ran out of his way. Lieh-3ze went to see him, and was fascinated! by him. Returning, he told Hid-ze of his interview, and said, ‘I considered your doctrine, my master, to be perfect, but I have found another which is superior to it.’ Hd-3ze? replied, ‘I have communicated to you but the outward letter of my doctrine, and have not communicated its reality and spirit; and do you think that you are in possession of it? However many hens there be, if there be not the cock among them, how should they lay (real) eggs*? When you confront the world with your doctrine, you are sure to show in your countenance (all that is in your mind) *, and so enable (this) man to succeed in interpreting your physiognomy. Try and come to me with him, that I may show myself to him.’

On the morrow, accordingly, Lieh-3ze came with the man and saw Hd-jze. When they went out, the it here as masculine (=a). The general meaning of the character is ‘ magical,’ the antics of such performers to bring down the spirits.

1 Literally, ‘intoxicated,’

2 The teacher in Taoism of Lieh-gze, called also HA K’if, with the name Lin (Ph). See the remarks on the whole paragraph in the Introductory Notice of the Book.

8 «The hens’ signify the letter of the doctrine; ‘the cock,’ its spirit ; ‘the eggs,’ a real knowledge of it.

* 4% is here in the first tone, and read as 4f, meaning ‘to stretch,’ ‘to set forth.’

p. 264

8 «The hens’ signify the letter of the doctrine; ‘the cock,’ its spirit ; ‘the eggs,’ a real knowledge of it.

* 4% is here in the first tone, and read as 4f, meaning ‘to stretch,’ ‘to set forth.’

p. 264

wizard said, ‘Alas! your master is a dead man. He will not live ;—not for ten days more! I saw something strange about him ;—I saw the ashes (of his life) all slaked with water!’ When Lieh-ze reentered, he wept till the front of his jacket was wet with his tears, and told Hf-3ze what the man had said. H4-3ze said, ‘I showed myself to him with the forms of (vegetation beneath) the earth. There were the sprouts indeed, but without (any appearance of) growth or regularity:—he seemed to see me with the springs of my (vital) power closed up. Try and come to me with him again.’

Next day, accordingly, Lieh-3ze brought the man again and saw H{-jze. When they went out, the man said, ‘It is a fortunate thing for your master that he met with me. He will get better; he has all the signs of living! I saw the balance (of the springs of life) that had been stopped (inclining in his favour).’ Lieh-3ze went in, and reported these words to his master, who said, ‘I showed myself to him after the pattern of the earth (beneath the) sky. Neither semblance nor reality entered (into my exhibition), but the springs (of life) were issuing from beneath my feet ;—he seemed to see me with the springs of vigorous action in full play. Try and come with him again.’

Next day Lieh-3ze came with the man again, and again saw Hd-3ze with him. When they went out, the wizard said, ‘Your master is never the same. I cannot understand his physiognomy. Let him try to steady himself, and I will again view him.’ Lieh-3ze went in and reported this to Hf-3ze, who said, ‘This time I showed myself to him after the pattern of the grand harmony (of the two elemental

PT.I,SECT. vit. THE WRITINGS OF KWANG-8ZE, 265 forces), with the superiority inclining to neither. He seemed to see me with the springs of (vital) power in equal balance. Where the water wheels about from (the movements of) a dugong}, there is an abyss; where it does so from the arresting (of its course), there is an abyss; where it does so, and the water keeps flowing on, there is an abyss. There are nine abysses with their several names, and I have only exhibited three of them. Try and come with him again.’

There are nine abysses with their several names, and I have only exhibited three of them. Try and come with him again.’

Next day they came, and they again saw Ha-jze. But before he had settled himself in his position, the wizard lost himself and ran away. ‘ Pursue him,’ said Hfi-3ze, and Lieh-3ze did so, but could not come up with him. He returned, and told Hf-3ze, saying, ‘There is an end of him; he is lost; I could not find him.’ Hf-4ze rejoined, ‘I was showing him myself after the pattern of what was before I began to come from my author. I confronted him with pure vacancy, and an easy indifference. He did not know what I meant to represent. Now he thought it was the idea of exhausted strength, and now that of an onward flow, and therefore he ran away.’

After this, Lieh-3ze considered that he had not yet begun to learn (his master’s doctrine). He returned to his house, and for three years did not go out. He did the cooking for his wife. He fed the pigs as if he were feeding men. He took no part

? One of the dugong. It has various names in Chinese, one being aM ffi, ‘the Man-Fish,’ from a fancied resemblance of its head and face to a human being ;—the origin perhaps of the idea of the mermaid.

p. 266

or interest in occurring affairs. He put away the carving and sculpture about him, and returned to pure simplicity. Like a clod of earth he stood there in his bodily presence. Amid all distractions he was (silent) and shut up in himself. And in this way he continued to the end of his life.

6. Non-action (makes its exemplifier) the lord of all fame; non-action (serves him as) the treasury of all plans; non-action (fits him for) the burden of all offices; non-action (makes him) the lord of all wisdom}, The range of his action is inexhaustible, but there is nowhere any trace of his presence. He fulfils all that he has received from Heaven ?, but he does not see that he was the recipient of anything. A pure vacancy (of all purpose) is what characterises him. When the perfect man employs his mind, it is a mirror. It conducts nothing and anticipates nothing; it responds to (what is before it), but does not retain it. Thus he is able to deal successfully with all things, and injures none.

7. The Ruler? of the Southern Ocean was Shi‘, the

1 The four members of this sentence occasion the translator no small trouble. They are constructed on the same lines, and seem to me to be indicative and not imperative. Lin Hsi-kung observes that all the explanations that had been offered of them were inappropriate. My own version is substantially in accordance with his interpretations. The chief difficulty is with the first member, which seems anti-T4oistic; but our author is not speaking of the purpose of any actor, but of the result of his non-action. F is to be taken in the sense of x, ‘lord,’ ‘ exercising lordship.’ The wD in the third sentence indicates a person or persons in the author’s mind in what precedes.

F is to be taken in the sense of x, ‘lord,’ ‘ exercising lordship.’ The wD in the third sentence indicates a person or persons in the author’s mind in what precedes.

2 = the Heavenly or self-determining nature.

8 Perhaps ‘ god’ would be a better translation.

* Meaning ‘ Heedless.’

<= - _ =

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Ruler of the Northern Ocean was Hii}, and the Ruler of the Centre was Chaos. Shd and Hi were continually meeting in the land of Chaos, who treated them very well. They consulted together how they might repay his kindness, and said, ‘Men all have seven orifices for the purpose of seeing, hearing, eating, and breathing, while this (poor) Ruler alone has not one. Let us try and make them for him.’ Accordingly they dug one orifice in him every day; and at the end of seven days Chaos died ?.

1 Meaning ‘ Sudden.’

2 The little allegory is ingenious and amusing. ‘It indicates,’ says Lin, ‘how action (the opposite of non-inaction) injures the first condition of things.’ More especially it is in harmony with the T4oistic opposition to the use of knowledge in government. One critic says that an ‘alas!’ might well follow the concluding ‘died.’ But surely it was better that Chaos should give place to another state. ‘Heedless’ and ‘Sudden’ did not do a bad work.

a nt ee toe woe

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BOOK VIII.
Part IL. Section I.

Phien MAu, or ‘ Webbed Toes?’

1. A ligament uniting the big toe with the other toes and an extra finger may be natural? growths, but they are more than is good for use. Excrescences on the person and hanging tumours are growths from the body, but they are unnatural additions to it. There are many arts of benevolence and righteousness, and the exercise of them is distributed among the five viscera*; but this is not the correct method according to the characteristics of the Tao. Thus it is that the addition to the foot is but the attachment to it of so much useless flesh, and the addition to the hand is but the planting on it of a useless finger. (So it is that) the connecting (the virtues) with the five viscera renders, by excess or restraint, the action of benevolence and righteousness bad, and leads to many arts as in the employment of (great) powers of hearing or of vision.

2. Therefore an extraordinary power of vision

1 See pp. 138, 139.

? «Come out from the nature,’ but ‘nature’ must be taken here as in the translation, The character is not Tao.

8 The five viscera are the heart, the liver, the stomach, the lungs, and the kidneys. To the liver are assigned the element ‘ wood,’ and the virtue of benevolence; to the lungs, the element ‘ metal,’ and the virtue of righteousness.

p. 269

8 The five viscera are the heart, the liver, the stomach, the lungs, and the kidneys. To the liver are assigned the element ‘ wood,’ and the virtue of benevolence; to the lungs, the element ‘ metal,’ and the virtue of righteousness.

p. 269

leads to the confusion of the five colours! and an excessive use of ornament. (Its possessor), in the resplendence of his green and yellow, white and black, black and green, will not stop till he has become a Lt X02 An extraordinary power of hearing leads to a confusion of the five notes *, and an excessive use of the six musical accords‘. (Its possessor), in bringing out the tones from the instruments of metal, stone, silk, and bamboo, aided by the Hwang-£ung?* and T4-lii* (tubes), will not stop till he has become a Shih Khwang®. (So), excessive benevolence eagerly brings out virtues and restrains its (proper) nature, that (its possessor) may acquire a famous reputation, and cause all the organs and drums in the world to celebrate an unattainable condition ; and he will not stop till he has become a 3ang (Shan)* or a Shih (3hid)’. An ex-

1 Black, red, azure (green, blue, or black), white, and yellow.

2 The same as the Lt Lau of Mencius (IV, i, 1),—of the time of Hwang-Ti. It is not easy to construe the text here, and in the analogous sentences below. MHsiian Ying, having read on to the 2 A as the uninterrupted predicate of the sharp seer, says, ‘ Is not this a proof of the extraordinary gift?’ What follows would be, ‘ But it was exemplified in Lt X@.’ The meaning that is given in the version was the first that occurred to myself.

5 The five notes of the Chinese musical scale.

* There are twelve of these musical notes, determined by the twelve regulating tubes; six, represented here by Hwang-kung, the name of the first tube, giving the sharp notes; and six, represented by T4-lii, giving the flat notes.

5 See in II, par. 5.

6 The famous 34ng-zze, or 34ng Shan, one of Confucius’s ablest disciples.

7 An officer of Wei in the sixth century B.c. He belonged to a family of historiographers, and hence the surname Shih GB). Confucius mentions him in the most honourable terms in the

= ean

——-ae a ome

Re ere ree

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7 An officer of Wei in the sixth century B.c. He belonged to a family of historiographers, and hence the surname Shih GB). Confucius mentions him in the most honourable terms in the

= ean

——-ae a ome

Re ere ree

p. 270

traordinary faculty in debating leads to the piling up of arguments like a builder with his bricks, or a netmaker with his string. (Its possessor) cunningly contrives his sentences and enjoys himself in discussing what hardness is and what whiteness is, where views agree and where they differ, and pressing on, though weary, with short steps, with (a multitude of) useless words to make good his opinion ; nor will he stop till he has become a Yang (A)! or Mo (Ti). But_in all these cases the parties, with their _redundant and divergent methods, do not proceed _by that_which is the correct path for all under the sky. That which is the perfectly correct path is not to lose the real character_of the nature with which we are endowed. Hence the union (of parts) should not be considered redundance, nor their divergence superfluity ; what is long should not be considered too long, nor what is short too short:- A duck’s legs, for instance, are short, but if we try to lengthen them, it occasions pain; and a crane’s legs are long, but if we try to cut offa portion of them, it produces grief. Wherea part is by nature long, we are not to amputate, or where it is by nature short, we are not to lengthen it. There is no occasion to try to remove any trouble that it may cause.

3. The presumption is that benevolence and righteousness are not constituents of humanity; for to how much anxiety does the exercise of them give rise! Moreover when another toe is united to the

Analect XV, vi, by the name Shih Yii. ‘Righteousness’ was his great attribute.

1 The two heresiarchs so much denounced by Mencius. Both have appeared in previous Books.

PT. Il. SECT.1k THE WRITINGS OF KWANG-38ZE. 271 great toe, to divide the membrane makes you weep; and when there is an extra finger, to gnaw it off makes you cry out. In the one case there is a member too many, and in the other a member too few; but the anxiety and pain which they cause is the same. The benevolent men of the present age look at the evils of the world, as with eyes full of dust, and are filled with sorrow by them, while those who are not benevolent, having violently altered the character of their proper nature, greedily pursue after riches and honours. The presumption therefore is that benevolence and righteousness are contrary to the nature of man :—how full of trouble and contention has the world been ever since the three dynasties? began !

The presumption therefore is that benevolence and righteousness are contrary to the nature of man :—how full of trouble and contention has the world been ever since the three dynasties? began !

And moreover, in employing the hook and line, the compass and square, to give things their correct form you must cut away portions of what naturally belongs to them; in employing strings and fastenings, glue and varnish to make things firm, you must violently interfere with their qualities. The bendings and stoppings in ceremonies and music, and the factitious expression in the countenance of benevolence and righteousness, in order to comfort the minds of men :—these all show a failure in observing the regular principles (of the human constitution). All men are furnished with such regular principles; and according to them what is bent is not made so by the hook, nor what is straight by the line, nor what is round by the compass, nor what is square by the carpenter's square. Nor is adhesion effected by

\

1 Those of Hsid, Shang, and K4éu;—from the twenty-third ¢ century B.c. to our author’s own time.

me ee. ce eep. 272 the use of glue and varnish, nor are things bound together by means of strings and bands. Thus it

‘is that all in the world are produced what they are _ by a certain guidance, while they do not know how j they are produced so; and they equally attain their several ends while they do not know how it is that they do so. Anciently it was so, and it is so now; and this constitution of things should not be made of none effect. Why then should benevolence and righteousness be employed as connecting (links), or as glue and varnish, strings and bands, and the enjoyment arising from the Tao and its characteristics be attributed to them ?—it is a deception practised upon the world. Where the deception is small, there will be a change in the direction (of the objects pursued) ; where it is great, there will be a change of the nature itself. How do I know that it is so? Since he of the line of Yii called in his benevolence and righteousness to distort and vex the world, the world has not ceased to hurry about to execute their commands ;—has not this been by means of benevolence and righteousness to change (men’s views) of their nature ?

4. I will therefore try and discuss this matter. From the commencement of the three dynasties downwards, nowhere has there been a man who has not under (the influence of external) things altered (the course of) his nature. Small men for the sake of gain have sacrificed their persons; scholars for the sake of fame have done so; great officers, for the sake of their families; and sagely men, for the sake of the kingdom. These several classes, with different occupations, and different repu-

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